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GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA de Alexander Gode & Hugh E. Blair traducite ex anglese a interlingua per Selahattin Kayalar, Pasadena, le Statos Unite assistite per Piet Cleij (Paises Basse), Bent Andersen (Danmark), Ferenc Jeszenszky (Hungaria) e Stanley Mulaik (SUA), Augusto 2005 Lege primo le Curso minime ! |
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| PRINCIPIOS GENERAL ||| ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION §1-14 • Orthographia collateral §15 • Punctuation §16 | |
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PARTES DEL DISCURSO • Articulo definite §17-18 • Articulo indefinite §19-21 Substantivos §22-24 • Plurales §25-28 • Nomines proprie §29 • Apposition §30 | Adjectivos §31-42 • Comparation de adjectivos §34-42 Adverbios §43-53 • Comparation de adverbios §50-53 Pronomines §54-79 • Tabula de pronomines personal §54-59 • Pronomine personal indefinite §60-63 • Possessivos §64-65 Reflexivos §66-73 • Relativos §74-76 • Demonstrativos §78-79 Verbos §80-117 • Infinitivo §81-92 Participio presente §93-94 • Participio passate §95-98 • Tempore presente §99-101 Tempore passate §102-106 • Tempore futur §107 • Conditional §108-109 • Imperativo §110-111 • Passivo §112-114 Tabula de conjugation §115 • Le question §116 • Le sequentia de tempores §117 Numerales §118-133 • Cardinales §118-124 • Ordinales §125 • Le adjectivo fractional §126 • Multiplicativos §127-128 Le numerales collective §129 • Numeros adverbial §130 • Le functiones de numerales §131 • Datas e horas de die §132-133 Particulas grammatic §134 • Lista de particulas grammatic | |
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CONSTRUCTION DE PAROLAS • Le theoria de construction de parolas §135-167 I Derivation §136-154 • I.A Derivation ab substantivos §138-140 • I.A.a Substantivos ab substantivos §138 I.A.b Adjectivos ab substantivos §139 • I.A.c. Verbos ab substantivos §140 I.B Derivation ab adjectivos §141 • I.B.a. Substantivos ab adjectivos §141 • I.B.b Adjectivos ab adjectivos §142 I.B.c Adverbios ab adjectivos §143 • I.B.d Verbos ab adjectivos §144 I.C. Derivation ab verbos §145-154 • Prime thema §146-147 • Secunde thema §148-151 Substantivos ab verbos §152 • Adjectivos ab verbos §152 • Suffixos postverbal adjective §153 • Suffixos postverbal substantive §154 II Composition §155-167 • II.A Composition per medio de prefixos §156 • II.A.a Prefixos general §157 • Prefixos technic §158 II.B Composition per medio de formas compositori §159-162 III Derivation composite §163-167 • Composition per prefixos §163-164 • Prepositiones e conjunctiones §165-167 | |
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 Alexander Gode - Hugh E. Blair: (Prefacio de "INTERLINGUA, a grammar of the international language") "Vocabulario" e "grammatica" non es duo categorias hermeticamente isolate. Si le grammatica describe le structura de un lingua, il va sin dicer que nulle tal description pote offerer se sin referentia constante a materia lexical illustrative de varie tractos structural. Sed il es etiam ver que il non pote haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentate como materia crude amorphe. Listas lexical necessarimente possede structura, e le structura de vocabulos e expressiones es un cosa del grammatica. Iste observationes non suggere que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica poterea esser abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub capites separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos solmente reaffirma le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un lingua particular es interdependente como aspectos natural e necessarimente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual characteristicas special distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua planate. Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es in grande parte determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatic. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos foranee, sed si su patronos de structura lexical e syntactic remane intacte, le materia foranee essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate. Iste principio, applicabile a omne linguas, es illustrate impressivemente per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romanic assimilate in un base germanic. Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas auxiliar planate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia, superficialmente lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva ample opportunitate pro observar que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non es assi proque le structura grammatic de un lingua planate es minus significante que illo del linguas natural; illo es assi proque un vocabulario establite implica le determination de si multe questiones de structura, i.e. de grammatica, que le tractos grammatic remanente joca necessarimente un rolo subordinate e dependente. Il es, alora, solmente un inversion apparente del principio que le grammatica precede le vocabulario que, post determinar le vocabulario de un lingua auxiliar planate, tote que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas structural del vocabulario. Le structura grammatic de un lingua planate determina su character basic precisemente como le structura de un lingua natural. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic totalmente indeterminate. Le vocabulario de Interlingua per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le systema le minime o le plus simple possibile que es apte pro governar le uso del vocabulario seligite in linguage coherente.
Le effortios del IALA pro compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente
international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente
romanic. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca poteva securmente restringer se esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese, e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos. [*]
In consequentia un principio solide de guida in le elaboration del systema
grammatical de IALA es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera
le suppression de ulle tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio
del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios
e in consequentia del vocabulario del Interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English
Dictionary. In altere terminos,
Le determination de qual tractos grammatic debe esser retenite in le Interlingua,
lassa aperte le question del formas que sia usate pro representar lo. Le
formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le
methodos elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas
como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.
Si le material del grammatica sequente pare esser organisate de un maniera aliquanto inorthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poteva esser omittite in le caso presente proque lor materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi iste grammatica non contine, per exemplo, discussiones special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepte un paragrapho sub le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera etiam notate que il non ha ulle section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connexion con le varie partes del discurso cuje functiones in le phrase pote esser extendite a implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicabile etiam al Grammatica e illo ha essite includite de novo in le paginas sequente. Traduction ab anglese in interlingua per
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 Alexander Gode - Hugh E. Blair: (Preface of "INTERLINGUA, a grammar of the international language") "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. A grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar. These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua. The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, ie., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged. This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.
There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, ie., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.
It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language but the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate. The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.
IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. [*]
Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words,
The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.
If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages.
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In finnese:
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========== Grammatica ========== ---------------------------- Orthographia e pronunciation ---------------------------- §1 Le LITTERAS usate es le vinti-sex litteras conventional del alphabeto roman. Il ha nulle signos e symbolos extra pro indicar le accento e le pronunciation. §2 Le NORMA DE PRONUNCIATION es "continental." Le valores de sono del varie litteras es fluide intra limites de typo. Illos pote esser naturalmente influentiate per sonos proxime como etiam per habitos native de parlatores individual. Per exemplo, le sono de -u - describite in le expression "como -u in anglese {plural} - esserea justemente pronunciate como -oo in anglese {good} o {loom}, sed non como -u in anglese {stutter} o in le francese {lune}. §3 On debe guardar se del tendentia de parlatores anglese a obscurar vocales sin accento, facente los omnes sonar como -a in anglese {China}. Isto se applica particularmente al -e final. Nulle sono, final o altere, con o sin accento, debe esser pronunciate indistinctemente. §4 Le pronunciation anglese normal concorda con illo usate in le Interlingua pro le litteras -b, -d, -f, -k, -l, -m, -n, -p, -ph, -qu, -v, -w, e -z. Le litteras remanente es coperite per le regulas e observationes sequente: a - es sempre pronunciate como -a in anglese {father}; c - ante -e, -i, -y es pronunciate como -ts in anglese {hats} (o, optionalmente, como -c in anglese {city}); alteremente como -c in anglese {cats}; -ch como -ch in anglese {echo}, {chrome}; e - sempre como -e in anglese {met} o, melior, como -é in francese {risqué}; g - como -g in anglese {good}; h - como in anglese (o, optionalmente, silente); post -r e -t, mute; i - normalmente como -i in anglese {machine}; quando non accentuate ante un vocal, como -i in anglese {onion} o {phobia}; p.ex. bile, biliose, varie; j - como -z in anglese {azure} (o, optionalmente, como -g in anglese {gem} o como -y in {yes}); o - sempre como -o in anglese {obey}; r - como -rr in anglese {merry} o, melior, como -r in espaniol {caro}; s - como -s in anglese {stay}; inter vocales, le mesme (o, optionalmente, como -s in anglese {these}); p.ex. sparse, abstruse, accusativo; t - como in anglese; -ti ante vocales, a minus que accentuate o precedite per -s, como -tsy in anglese {he gets you} (o, optionalmente, como -sy in anglese {we pass you} o como -ty in anglese {we let you}); p.ex. actor, garantia, question, sed action, reverentia; u - normalmente como -u in anglese {plural}; quando non accentuate ante un vocal, como -u in anglese {persuade} o {superfluous}; p.ex. plural, persuader, superflue; x - como -x in anglese {fox}; inter vocales, le mesme (o, optionalmente, como -x in anglese {exact}); y - non accentuate ante vocales, como -y in anglese {yes}; alteremente como -i in anglese {machine}; p.ex. Yugoslavia, typo. §5 In DIPHTHONGOS le vocales retene lor valores de sono independente. Le diphthongo -ai es pronunciate como in germano {kaiser}, -au como in germano {kraut}. Le -e e -i accentuate es separate per un pausa syllabic ab un -a, -e, -o sequente; p.ex. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Non accentuate -i e -u se transforma in semiconsonantes ante un vocal sequente; p.ex. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. §6 CONSONANTES DUPLE se fusiona in pronunciation. Le consonante duple -ss es sempre silente como -ss in anglese {miss}. Le sonos de -g e -k assimila un -n precedente como in anglese. Nota que le consonante duple -cc es scribite -c al fin de un parola (siccar sed sic). §7 Pronunciationes deviante de iste normas es indicate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary per un systema de rescriber in le qual le litteras ha le mesme valores de sono como in Interlingua. Le digrapho -ch representa frequentemente le sono de -sh in anglese {English} e es rescribite como -sh; p.ex. choc (sh-). Le combination -gi sovente representa le sono de -z in anglese {azure} e es rescribite como -j ; p.ex. avantagiose (-ajo-). Le -g simple ha iste sono e ergo es rescribite assi in le suffixo -age; p.ex. avantage (-aje). §8 Pro cambios orthographic in derivation, vide §137. §9 "VOCABULOS HOSPITE" non-assimilate, i.e. parolas foranee o prestate le quales es identificate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary quanto a lor origine, retene le pronunciation e orthographia del lingua original. Le signos diacritic original es omittite quando le orthographia simplificate resultante suffice pro suggerer le pronunciation intendite; p.ex. defaite pro francese {défaite}, sed kümmel como in germano. §10 Le ACCENTO principal es normalmente super le vocal ante le ultime consonante. Le desinentia plural non cambia le accento original del parola. Adjectivos e substantivos con desinentias in -le, -ne, e -re precedite per un vocal ha le accento super le tertie syllaba ab le fin; p.ex. frágile, órdine, témpore. In parolas formate con le suffixos -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, e -ulo le accento cade super le syllaba que precede le suffixo. Le suffixos -ific e -ifico es accentuate super le prime -i. Deviationes ab iste systema de accento es coperite in le Interlingua-English Dictionary per rescriber con signos de accento. Le majoritate de iste deviationes pote esser coperite per regulas descriptive additional. Per exemplo, le suffixos -issim, -esim, -ifer, e -olog es accentuate super le prime vocal. Le suffixos -ia e -eria, in tanto que illos corresponde al anglese {-y} e {-ery}, es accentuate super le vocal -i; etc. Nota: Parolas sin un consonante o sin un vocal ante le ultime consonante es accentuate per necessitate super le prime vocal; p.ex. ío, vía, e certe formas de tempore presente, como strúe, créa, etc. Sed cónstrue, prócrea, etc. e etiam dimínue, substítue, etc. seque le regula standard e ha le accento super le vocal ante le ultime consonante. §11 Le importantia de regularitate del accentuation non debe esser exaggerate. Le effortio involvite in acquirer un accentuation non-familiar pro un parola alteremente familiar pare sovente exaggerate. Isto, naturalmente, non implica que parolas de Interlingua pote esser accentuate completemente al hasardo, sed que un parola como kilometro remane le mesme parola international si habitos native causa que un parlator lo accentua super le secunde o super le tertie syllaba. §12 Habitos native pote equalmente esser permittite prevaler in questiones de INTONATION, DURATION DE SONOS, e simile. Es suggerite, nonobstante, que le sequentia de un vocal final e un vocal initial, ambes non accentuate e non separate per un pausa in intonation, es pronunciate como un syllaba combinate glissante; p.ex. le alte Ural, quasi como si illo habeva le quatro syllabas le-ál-teu-rál. §13 Le SYLLABATION seque le pronunciation. Consonantes singule, excepte -x, pertine al syllaba sequente. Gruppos de consonantes es dividite, sed -l e -r non debe esser separate de precedente -b, -c, -ch, -f, -g, -p, -ph, -t, -th, e -v. Le combinationes -qu, -gu, e -su se comporta como consonantes singule. §14 Le USO DE MAJUSCULAS differe del
usage anglese in que intra le phrase
majusculas initial occurre
exclusivemente con nomines proprie, sed
non con derivatos de illos.
Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate.
Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova
solmente in Shakespeare.
Proque terminos sacre, nomines del
ferias religiose e altere, designationes
de movimentos, eras, doctrinas, etc.
poterea esser considerate como nomines
proprie o commun, illos es scribite con
majuscula o non, dependente del
signification intendite. |
======= Grammar ======= -------------------------- Spelling and Pronunciation -------------------------- § 1. The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation.
§ 2. The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is
"continental." The sound values of the
various letters are fluid within type
limits. They may be naturally influenced
by neighboring sounds as also by native
habits of individual speakers. For
instance, the sound of u- described in
the phrase, "like u in 'plural' "-- may
well be pronounced like oo in 'good' or
in 'loom' but not like u in 'stutter'
or in French 'lune'.
§ 3. The tendency of English speakers to
obscure unstressed vowels, making them
all sound like a in 'China,' should be
guarded against. This applies
particularly to final e. No sound, final
or otherwise, unstressed or stressed,
should be unduly slurred over.
§ 4. The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w, and z. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: a is always pronounced like a in English 'father';
c before e, i, y is pronounced like ts
in 'hats' (or, optionally, like c in
'city'); otherwise like c in 'cats'; ch
like ch in 'echo. chrome';
e always like e in 'met' or, better, like é in French 'risqué.' g like g in 'good'; h as in English (or, optionally, silent); after r and t, silent;
i normally like i in 'machine'; when
unstressed before a vowel, like in
'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. bile,
biliose, varie;
j like z in 'azure' (or, optionally,
like g in 'gem' or like y in 'yes');
o always like o in 'obey'; r like rr in 'merry' or, better, like r in Spanish 'caro'; s like s in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like s in 'these'); e.g. sparse, abstruse, accusativo;
t as in English; ti before vowels,
unless stressed or preceded by s, like
tsy in 'he gets you' (or, optionally,
like sy in 'we pass you' or like ty in
'we let you'); e.g. actor, garantia,
question, but action, reverentia;
u normally like u in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like u in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. plural, persuader, superflue;
x like x in 'fox'; between vowels, the
same (or, optionally, like x in
'exact');
y unstressed before vowels, like y in 'yes'; otherwise like i in 'machine'; e.g. Yugoslavia, typo.
§ 5. In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain
their independent sound values. The
diphthong ai is pronounced as in
'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e
and i are separated by a syllabic break
from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io,
spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i
and u turn into semiconsonants before
a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria,
filatorio, persuader.
§ 6. DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in
pronunciation. The double consonant ss
is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.'
The sounds of g and k assimilate a
preceding n as in English. Note that the
double consonant cc is spelled c at the
end of a word (siccar but sic).
§ 7. Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). § 8. On orthographic changes in derivation, see § 137 below.
§ 9. Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that
is, foreign or borrowed words which are
identified in the Interlingua-English
Dictionary as to their origin, retain
the pronunciation and spelling of the
language of origin. The original
diacritical signs are omitted when the
resulting simplified spelling suffices
to suggest the intended pronunciation;
e.g. defaite for French défaite, but
kümmel as in German.
§ 10. The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i.
Deviations from this stress system are
covered in the Interlingua-English
Dictionary by respelling with stress
marks. Most of these deviations might be
covered by additional descriptive rules.
For instance, the suffixes -issim-,
-esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed
on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and
-eria, in so far as they correspond to
English -y and -ery, are stressed on the
vowel i; etc.
Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant.
§ 11. The importance of stress
regularity should not be exaggerated.
The effort involved in acquiring an
unfamiliar stress for an otherwise
familiar word seems often inordinate.
This does not, of course, imply that
Interlingua words may be stressed
completely at random but merely that a
word like kilometro remains the same
international word whether native habits
cause a speaker to stress it on the
second or on the third syllable.
§ 12. Native habits may likewise be
allowed to prevail in questions of
INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the
like. It is suggested, however, that the
sequence of a final and an initial
vowel, both unstressed and not separated
by a pause in intonation, be pronounced
as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural
almost as though it had the four
syllables le-ál-teu-rál.
§ 13. SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants.
§ 14.
CAPITALIZATION differs from English
usage in that within the sentence
upper-case initials occur exclusively
with proper names but not with
derivatives from them. Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended.
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----------------------- Orthographia collateral ----------------------- §15 Le regulas sequente de ORTHOGRAPHIA COLLATERAL, non observate in le Interlingua- English Dictionary, forni un systema simplificate de position equal a illo que es describite in le paragraphos precedente. Tote le punctos non specificamente coperite infra debe esser retenite inalterate; assi per exemplo le tractamento del vocabulos hospite non-assimilate cuje orthographia remane como usate in le Interlingua- English Dictionary. (a) Litteras duple que representa un consonante singule es simplificate con le exception de -ss. Nota que le gruppo -cc ante -e, -i, e -y non representa un consonante singule; p.ex. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (pro ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar); sed massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. (b) Le vocal -y es reimplaciate per -i; p.ex. tirano (pro tyranno). Le semiconsonante -y remane inalterate; p.ex. yak. (c) Le digrapho -ph es reimplaciate per -f; p.ex. fonetic, emfatic (pro phonetic, emphatic). (d) Le digrapho -ch, representante le sono -k, es retenite solo ante -e e -i. In altere partes illo es reimplaciate per -c. P.ex. cloric (pro chloric), Cristo (pro Christo) sed chimeric. (e) Le -h silente post -r e -t es omittite; p.ex. retoric (pro rhetoric), patetic (pro pathetic). (f) Le littera -j reimplacia -g e -gi pro representar le sono de -z in anglese {azure}; p.ex. sajo (pro sagio). (g) Le suffixo -age (etiam le gruppo sonic -age al fin de un parola ubi illo non es un suffixo) es reimplaciate per le forma -aje; p.ex. saje, coraje (pro sage, corage). Le suffixo -isar es reimplaciate per le forma -izar. Su derivatos es equalmente scribite per -z. P.ex. civilizar, civilization (pro civilisar, civilisation). (h) Le -e final es omittite post -t precedite per un vocal excepte in parolas que ha le accento super le tertie syllaba ab le fin; p.ex. animat, brevitat (pro animate, brevitate), sed composite. Iste regula etiam se applica pro -e final post -n, -l, e -r quando iste consonantes es le orthographia collateral pro -nn, -ll, e -rr; p.ex. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (pro perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Nota: Le formas del tempore presente e imperative non es afficite per iste regula; pote, permite, etc. retene lor -e final. |
---------------------- Collateral orthography ----------------------
§ 15. COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. -- The
following rules, not observed in the
Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a
simplified system of equal standing with
that outlined in the preceding
paragraphs. All points not specifically
covered below are to be kept unchanged;
so for instance the treatment of
unassimilated guest words whose
orthography remains that used in the
Interlingua-English Dictionary.
(a) Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. E.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. (b) The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. (c) The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). (d) The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. E.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimetic.
(e) The silent h after r and t is
omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for
rhetoric, pathetic).
(f) The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of z in 'azure.' E.g. sajo (for sagio). (g) The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. E.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). (h) Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. |
|
----------- Punctuation -----------
§16 Le PUNCTUATION reflecte le rhythmo
del phrase parlate e obedi nulle regulas
absolute. Le signos del punctuation e
lor valores general es le mesmes como in
anglese. Expressiones interpolate e
propositiones relative e conjunctional
es demarcate per commas a minus que le
rhythmo intendite permitte nulle pausa.
In enumerationes de plus que duo parolas
o contextos, le uso de e o o ante le
ultime non elimina le comma.
Le homine, que se considera como le
corona del creation, pare plus tosto
facite de metallo blanc que de auro.
Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un
pedestallo pro le gallo.
Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del
catto, o del gallo?
Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su
imperio, e Russia es tres del grande
potentias.
Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente. |
----------- Punctuation -----------
§ 16. PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of
the spoken sentence and obeys no
absolute rules. The signs of punctuation
and their general values are the same as
in English. Interpolated phrases and
relative and conjunctional clauses are
enclosed in commas unless the intended
rhythm permits no break. In enumerations
of more than two items, the use of e
'and' or o 'or' before the last item
does not eliminate the comma. Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' |
|
=================== Partes del discurso =================== --------- Articulos --------- ----------------- Articulo definite ----------------- §17 Le ARTICULO DEFINITE es le. Illo exhibi nulle accordo in forma con le substantivo sequente. Un preposition a o de precedente se combina con le articulo le in le formas al e del.
le patre
le matre
le infante
le patres
del patre al matre
le matre del infantes
§18 Le articulo definite es usate in toto como in anglese.
Io ama infantes. Le articulo definite non necessarimente debe esser omittite con titulos que precede nomines proprie, excepte in discurso directe. Illo non debe esser omittite con nomines abstracte que representa le classe integre, specie, etc.
le professor e le seniora
Alicuno ...
Da me le libertate o le morte!
Io es felice de vider vos, doctor Alicuno.
Illa adora le homine e le animal. |
=============== Parts of Speech =============== ------- ARTICLE ------- ---------------- Definite article ----------------
§ 17. The DEFINITE ARTICLE is le 'the.'
It shows no agreement in form with the
following noun. A preceding preposition
a or de fuses with the article le in the
forms al and del.
le patre 'the father' le matre 'the mother' le infante 'the child' le patres 'the fathers' del patre al matre 'from the father to the mother' le matre del infantes 'the mother of the children' § I8. The definite article is used on the whole as in English.
'I like children' Io ama infantes The definite article need not be omitted with titles preceding proper names, except in direct address. It must not be omitted with abstract nouns representing the entire class, species, etc. 'Professor and Mrs. Somebody' le professor e le seniora Alicuno 'Give me liberty or give me death' Da me le libertate o le morte 'I am happy to see you, Dr. Somebody' Io es felice de vider vos, doctor Alicuno 'She adores man and beast' Illa adora le homine e le animal |
|
------------------- Articulo indefinite ------------------- §19 Le ARTICULO INDEFINITE es un. Como le articulo definite, illo non exhibi accordo in forma con le substantivo sequente. Illo es identic con le numeral un.
un patre §20 Le articulo indefinite es usate como in anglese. §21 Le ARTICULO DEFINITE e le INDEFINITE
ambes ha in commun con le adjectivos le
possibilitate de uso pronominal. Vide
§§38-41.
mi fratre e un de mi amicos ...
Io parla duo linguas; un al domo, un
altere al officina; le un es francese,
le altere anglese.
Io parla duo linguas; le de mi familia e
le de mi ambiente.
Quando usate como pronomines, le
articulos pote prender le formas plural
les e unes. Le secunde es sovente
rendite in anglese como {some}.
Nostre amicos veni: les de mi fratre, un
de mi soror, e unes del amicos de nostre
parentes.
In uso pronominal le articulos es
capabile de facer un distinction inter
antecedentes masculin e feminin, le e
la, uno e una, le quales ha in torno
formas plural (les, las, unos, unas). Le
distinction non ha necessitate de esser
observate quando le contexto es clar sin
illo.
Mi fratre e mi soror invita lor melior
amicos; le de mi fratre ama la de mi soror.
Mi fratre e mi soror ha multe amicos.
Uno de mi fratre ama una de mi soror.
mi amicos, unos de mi fratre, e las de mi
soror
Nota que le articulo definite in uso pronominal ha le forma masculin le, le forma feminin la, con le vocales final characteristic (-e, -a) que appare de novo con certe pronomines (vide §§54, 58, 78) durante que le articulo indefinite in uso pronominal ha le distinction masculin-feminin uno-una con le vocales final (-o, -a) que es incontrate con substantivos (vide §24).
Le articulo definite ha un forma
pronominal neutre lo, que occurre
specialmente in le expression lo que. Su
plural, rarmente requirite, es
naturalmente los. Io non sape lo que ille pensa. |
------------------ Indefinite article ------------------ § 19. The INDEFINITE ARTICLE is un 'a' or 'an.' Like the definite article it shows no agreement in form with the following noun. It is identical with the numeral un 'one.'
un patre 'a father, one father' § 20. The indefinite article is used as in English.
§ 21. Both the DEFINITE and the
INDEFINITE ARTICLES share with
adjectives the possibility of
pronominal use. See §§ 38-41 below. mi fratre e un de mi amicos 'my brother and one of my friends' Io parla duo linguas; un al domo, un altere al officina; le un es francese, le altere anglese 'I speak two languages; one at home, another at the shop; the one is French, the other English' Io parla duo linguas; le de mi familia e le de mi ambiente 'I speak two languages; that of my family and that of my environment'
When used as pronouns, the articles can
take the plural forms les and unes. The
latter is often to be rendered as
'some.' Nostre amicos veni: les de mi fratre, un de mi soror, e unes del amicos de nostre parentes 'Our friends are coming: those of my brother, one of my sister's, and some of the friends of our parents' In pronominal use the articles are capable of making a distinction between male and female antecedents, le and la, uno and una, all of which have in turn plural forms. The distinction need not be observed when the context is clear without it. Mi fratre e mi soror invita lor melior amicos; le de mi fratre ama la de mi soror 'My brother and sister invite their best friends; my brother's [best friend] loves my sister's [best friend]' Mi fratre e mi soror ha multe amicos. Uno de mi fratre ama una de mi soror 'My brother and my sister have many friends. One of my brother's [friends] loves one of my sister's [friends]' mi amicos, unos de mi fratre, e las de mi soror 'my friends, some of my brother's [boy friends], and the girl friends of my sister'
Note that the definite article in
pronominal use has the male form le, the
female form la, with characteristic
final vowels appearing again with
certain pronouns (see §§ 54, 58, 78
below) while the indefinite article in
pronominal use has the male-female
distinction uno-una with final vowels to
be encountered with nouns (see § 24
below).
The definite article has a neuter pronominal form lo which occurs especially in the phrase lo que 'that which, what.' Its plural, rarely needed, is of course los. Lo que io pensa 'what I think' Io non sape lo que ille pensa 'I don't know what he thinks' |
|
============ Substantivos ============ §22 Como in anglese, le substantivos non pote esser identificate per un tracto constante e specific de lor formas. Le grande majoritate del substantivos fini in un del vocales -a, -o, -e, o le consonantes -l, -n, -r. Sed iste terminationes occurre etiam con altere vocabulos. Il ha, de novo como in anglese, un numero de suffixos que occurre solmente con substantivos. Ultra isto le substantivos es recognoscite per le function que illos representa in un phrase. §23 Il ha nulle GENERE GRAMMATIC. Le
terminationes del substantivos ha nulle
valores grammatic e pote esser
considerate accidental. §24 Quando le termination -o occurre - e illo occurre frequentemente - in un parola que designa un esser MASCULIN, le correspondente FEMININ pote esser representate per le mesme parola con le termination substituite per -a. Le regula etiam functiona in ordine reverse.
Parola original (IED) Sexo opposite
precisate
masculin (...o) feminin (...a)
asino asina
missionario missionaria
americano americana
feminin (...a) masculin (...o)
oca oco
ciconia ciconio
Nota: Le inferentia que un parola como 'musca' permitte le uso del forma masculin 'musco' es si justificate e etiam tanto incongrue como le suggestion que le anglese pote formar le parola {he-fly}. Concernente le formation del substantivos feminin per le suffixos -essa e -trice, vide §§138, 152. |
==== NOUN ====
§ 22. As in English, nouns cannot be
identified by a constant and specific
feature of their forms. The great
majority of nouns end in one of the
vowels a, o, e, or the consonants I, n,
r. But these terminations occur with
other words too. There are, again as in
English, a number of suffixes which
occur only with nouns. Otherwise nouns
are recognized by the function they
perform in a sentence.
§ 23. There is no GRAMMATICAL GENDER. The terminations of nouns have no grammatical value and may be considered accidental.
tabula 'table' § 24. When the termination o occurs – as it frequently does – in a word designating a MALE being, the corresponding FEMALE can be represented by the same word with the substituted ending a. The rule works also in reverse order. asino 'donkey'; hence: asina 'female donkey' missionario 'missionary'; hence: missionaria 'woman missionary' americano 'American'; hence: americana 'American (girl or woman)' oca 'goose'; hence: oco 'gander' ciconia 'stork'; hence: ciconio '(male) stork' Note: The inference that a word like musca 'fly' would permit the use of the male form musco is as justified and also as incongruous as the suggestion that English can form the word 'he-fly.' — On the formation of female nouns by means of the suffixes -essa and -trice, see §§ 138, 152 below. |
|
-------- Plurales -------- §25 Le PLURAL es formate per le addition de -s o - post un consonante - de -es. Un -c final cambia ante -es a -ch; p.ex. |
------ Plural ------ § 25. The PLURAL is formed by the addition of s or – after a consonant – of es. Final c changes before es to ch. |
|
| singular plural (...s)
-------- -------------
tabula tabulas
pagina paginas
homine homines
aere aeres
tempore tempores
libertate libertates
uso usos
fructo fructos
singular plural (...es)
uxor uxores
fun funes
galon galones
generation generationes
gas gases
singular plural (...hes)
-------- ---------------
roc roches | |
Plurales irregular occurre solmente in "vocabulos hospite" le quales ha retenite lor identitate estranier. singular plural -------- ----------------------- le test le tests [Anglese] le lied le lieder [Germano] le addendum le addenda [Neo-latino] le Abruzzi [Italiano] Vocabulos docte que termina in -is forma lor plural como si le singular habeva un -e final: genesis (o genese) –> geneses; hepatitis –> hepatites. Compositos singular con secunde elementos in plural non ha plurales distincte. singular plural --------------- ---------------- un guardacostas duo guardacostas un rumpenuces duo rumpenuces un paracolpos duo paracolpos §26 Il non ha FORMAS DE CASO. Le functiones del dativo e genitivo in altere linguas es representate per prepositiones. a Deo ... Ille invia flores a su matre. Nos paga taxas al governamento. de Deo ... Illa recipe le flores de su filio. le debitas del governamento ... §27 Pro le formation de substantivos como etiam de derivatos de illos, vide §§138, 139, 140, 141, 152, 154. §28 Le modo in que le substantivos es usate in le phrase non differe considerabilemente del normas anglese. Nota, totevia, que le uso quasi illimitate de SUBSTANTIVOS CON FUNCTIONES ADJECTIVE es un tracto anglese que Interlingua non possede. tempore hibernal, tempore de hiberno: winter weather laboratorio de recerca: research laboratory mantello de autumno, mantello pro autumno: fall coat guarda de nocte: night watchman bottilia de lacte, bottilia a lacte: milk bottle canto de nocte, canto nocturne: night song --------------- Nomines proprie --------------- §29 NOMINES PROPRIE que functiona in anglese como adjectivos - como p.ex. in {Diesel engine}, {Geiger counter}, etc. - remane nomines proprie non-modificate in le Interlingua e es precedite per le substantivo que illos qualifica. Le patrono usate es le mesme que es sequite in anglese in le caso del titulos : {Doctor Diesel}, {Professor Diesel}, {motor Diesel}, etc. Le nomines proprie non prende le -s plural. |
Irregular plurals occur only in "guest
words" which have retained their foreign
identity.
le test: le tests [English]
Learned terms ending in -is form their
plural as though the singular had a
final -e: genesis (or genese) > geneses;
hepatitis > hepatites.
Singular compounds with second elements
in the plural have no distinct plural.
un guardacostas: duo guardacostas (coastguard) § 26. There are no CASE FORMS. The functions of the genitive and dative in other languages are taken over by prepositions. a Deo 'God' to God' Ille invia flores a su matre 'He sends his mother flowers, He sends flowers to his mother'
Nos paga taxas al governamento 'We pay
the government tax money,
We pay tax money to the government' de Deo 'God's, of God' Illa recipe le flores de su filio 'She receives her son's flowers' § 27. On the formation of nouns as well as of derivatives from them, see §§ 138-141, 152, 154 below.
§ 28. The way nouns are used in the
sentence does not differ materially from
English norms. Note, however, that the
almost unlimited use of NOUNS WITH
ADJECTIVAL FUNCTIONS is an English trait
not shared by Interlingua.
'winter weather' (= wintry weather,
weather of winter) tempore hibernal,
tempore de hiberno
------------
§ 29. PROPER NOUNS functioning in
English as adjectives – as e.g. in
'Diesel engine,' 'Geiger counter,' etc.
– remain unmodified proper nouns in the
Interlingua and are preceded by the noun
they qualify in English. The pattern
used is that followed in English in the
case of titles: Doctor Diesel, Professor
Diesel, engine Diesel; etc. The proper
names take no plural -s.
'Geiger counter(s)' contator Geiger,
contatores Geiger
'Diesel engine(s)' motor Diesel, motores
Diesel
'Roentgen rays' radios Röntgen
'Heaviside layer' strato Heaviside
----------
§ 30. There is a very free use of
APPOSITION with one member often cor-
responding to an English noun with
adjectival functions.
foresta virgine 'virgin forest'
arbore nano 'dwarf tree'
wagon restaurante 'dining car'
nave domo 'house boat'
homine machina 'human machine'
The use of apposition is very frequent
with nouns of agents and the like which
thus become indistinguishable from
adjectives.
mi amico mazdaista 'my Mazdaist friend' apparato generator 'generating device' uxor puera 'child wife' In the plural the appositive may take an -s. Without it the appositive is more clearly adjectival. One would say:
uxores pueras but apparatos generator,
forestas virgine, etc.
When the appositive has distinct forms for male and female, their use is governed by the fact of sex. mi amico cantator e mi amica cantatrice 'my singer friend (masc.) and my singer friend (fem.)' |
|
========== ADJECTIVOS ========== §31 Adjectivos fini in un vocal o un consonante. Le prime gruppo fini quasi sin exception in -e, e le secunde in un del consonantes -l, -n, -r, -c. Considerante que altere parolas pote haber le mesme desinentias, istos non identifica adjectivos, le quales pote esser recognoscite per le function que illos exeque in un phrase o alicun vices per un suffixo le qual per hasardo occurre con nulle altere parte del discurso.
delicate, parve, ... §32 Il ha nulle INFLEXION o ACCORDO adjectival. |
========= ADJECTIVE =========
§ 31. Adjectives end in a vowel or a
consonant. The former group ends almost
without exception in e, the latter in
one of the consonants 1, n, r, c. Since
other words can have the same endings,
these do not identify adjectives, which
can only be spotted by the function they
perform in a sentence or at times by a
suffix which happens to occur with no
other part of speech.
delicate 'delicate' american 'American'
parve 'small' dan 'Danish'
blau 'blue' par 'even'
equal 'equal' cyclic 'cyclic'
§ 32. There is no adjectival INFLECTION
or AGREEMENT.
|
| Le parve femina es belle 'The little woman is beautiful' (Le) parve feminas es belle '(The) little women are beautiful' (Le) parve homines es belle '(The) little men are handsome' Le parve libro es belle 'The little book is beautiful' | |
|
§33 Adjectivos placiate immediatemente
presso un substantivo pote PRECEDER O
SEQUER lo. Le secunde position es le
plus frequente e ergo normal. Adjectivos
que precede un substantivo tende a
suggerer que lo que illos exprime es un
tracto essential del concepto
substantive e non mermente un tracto que
distingue le representante presente del
concepto substantive ab alteres.
le lingua international e le linguas
national ...
Su integre vita esseva ric in viages
longe e breve
Adjectivos longe debe rarmente esser permittite de preceder un substantivo. Adjectivos breve como bon, alte, parve, grande, belle, breve, longe, etc., pote preceder pro le sol objectivo del rhythmo o a causa de preferentia personal. Le duo positiones possibile del adjectivo nunquam pote exprimer duo significationes distincte. Adjectivos numeral (cardinal como etiam ordinal) precede le substantivo le qual illos qualifica.
------------------------- §34 Grados de COMPARATION es exprimite per le adverbios plus e minus. |
§ 33. Adjectives placed next to a noun
can either PRECEDE OR FOLLOW. The latter
position is more frequent and hence
normal. Adjectives preceding a noun tend
to suggest that what they express is an
essential feature of the noun concept
and not merely a feature distinguishing
the present representative of the noun
concept from others.
le lingua international e le linguas national 'the international language and the national languages' Su integre vita esseva ric in viages longe e breve 'His whole life was rich in long and short trips' Long adjectives should rarely be allowed to precede a noun. Brief adjectives like bon, alte, parve, grande, belle, breve, longe, etc., may precede merely for rhythm's sake or as a matter of personal preference. The two possible positions of the adjective cannot ever express two distinct meanings. Numeral adjectives (cardinals as well as ordinals) precede the noun they qualify.
------------------------ § 34. Degrees of COMPARISON are expressed by means of the adverbs plus and minus. |
adjectivo comparativo superlativo
------------ ------------------ ---------------------
bon plus bon le plus bon
bon minus bon le minus bon
interessante plus interessante le plus interessante
interessante minus interessante le minus interessante
------------ ------------------ ---------------------
good better best
good less good least good
| |
|
In casos quando le comparativo es
precedite per le articulo definite, illo
coincide con le superlativo. Le exemplos
infra (§35) monstra que isto involve
nulle confusion.
§35 Comparation de equalitate es
exprimite per tanto...como, o si...como.
Le particula post le comparativo es que.
Le formas de comparativo e superlativo
que seque le substantivo repete le
articulo definite precedente - in caso
que il ha un tal.
Iste historia es le minus interessante
que io ha legite.
Iste historia es le minus interessante
del duo.
Del duo summas paga le plus parve.
Chesterlucks es plus blande.
Le presidente del committee ajorna omne
le questiones le plus urgente.
Illa ha le plus dulce temperamento e le
ideas le plus naive.
§36 Le idea del si-nominate SUPERLATIVO
ABSOLUTE pote esser exprimite como in
anglese per constructiones varie: Un medio usate specificamente pro le intentos del superlativo absolute es le suffixo -issime.
Su replica esseva un "non" multo
emphatic.
Su replica esseva un emphatichissime
"non."
Ille parla in un maniera terribilemente
interessante.
§37 Le particulas plus e minus, que es usate pro exprimer grados de comparation, mesme es exemplos de adverbios que admitte nulle formas regular de comparation (vide §44 infra), sed a vices in se pote exprimer un "grado comparative." Similarmente, il ha in le vocabulario de Interlingua alicun adjectivos que on pote reguardar como synonymos irregular de certe formas comparative e superlative.
adjectivo comparativo superlativo --------- ----------- ------------- parve plus parve le plus parve minor le minor minime magne plus magne le plus magne major le major maxime bon plus bon le plus bon melior le melior optime mal plus mal le plus mal pejor le pejor pessime §38 In theoria, CATA ADJECTIVO POTE
SERVIR COMO UN PRONOMINE. Le substantivo
que illo representa es sia alicuno
exprimite in le passage precedente, sia
un notion plus o minus definite in le
mente del parlator.
A causa de su eterne
mal humor nos le appella "le acre."
In le prime exemplo, 'le mascule' representa 'le conilio mascule' ; in le secunde exemplo, 'le acre' suggere un esser human masculin sed non un substantivo specific como homine, puero, maestro, etc. In le casos del secunde sorta, il pote esser preferibile parlar de "adjectivos usate como substantivos," o "adjectivos substantivate" plus tosto que de "adjectivos usate como pronomines." Le adjectivos usate como substantivos include etiam abstractiones del sorta 'le bon', 'le ver', 'le belle' in le senso de bonitate, veritate, beltate. §39 Adjectivos usate como pronomines o
substantivos se comporta grammaticamente
como substantivos ordinari e pote esser
pluralisate.
A causa de lor eterne mal humor nos les
appella "le acres."
§40 Numerose adjectivos listate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary corresponde a entratas substantive parallel. adjectivo substantivo -------------- ------------------------- bon bono auguste augusto; Augusto; Augusta characteristic characteristica chromatic chromatica indonesian indonesiano natural natural provincial provincial technic technico; technica automobile automobile ambiente ambiente alte alto belligerente belligerente comestibile comestibiles combustibile combustibile composite composito Le possibilitate de assi cambiar adjectivos in substantivos es limitate per nihil altere que senso commun. Si non alteremente crystallisate per le usage, un adjectivo usate como un substantivo de plen status (non simplemente como un pronomine pro un substantivo mentionate previemente) exprime sia le notion abstracte del qualitate representate per le adjectivo - p.ex. le bon, le belle, le sublime - sia un cosa o persona characterisate per lo que le adjectivo exprime - p.ex. le car, le amate, le previe, le ferite. Quando illos exprime un qualitate abstracte e quando illos representa un esser masculin, le adjectivos cambiate a substantivos o assume le desinentia vocal -o, o remane inalterate. Quando illos representa esseres feminin, illos assume le desinentia -a, o remane inalterate. Le cambio al desinentias vocal -o e -a sub le conditiones exprimite es le norma. Le adjectivos que non seque ille norma es listate in §41 infra. Il debe esser notate, totevia, (a) que le lista es exhaustive e assi include un bon numero de adjectivos pro le quales le distinction de masculin e feminin ha nulle significantia practic, e (b) que le lista es un "lista del purista" assi que le uso erronee del desinentias -o e -a con su objectos non pote esser considerate un cosa seriose. §41 Adjectivos que non pote, quando usate como substantivos, assumer formas distincte in -o e -a ben que illos es capace de, si le senso lo permitte, assumer le desinentia plural include le sequentes:
(a) omne adjectivos que fini in -ce e
-u; p.ex.
(b) omne adjectivos cuje thema apparente
es sequite per -ese/-ense, -il/-ile,
-ior, -nte, si o non iste desinentias es
clarmente recognoscite como suffixos; p.ex.
(c) omne adjectivos que fini in le
suffixos -al, -ar, -bile, -oide, -plice; p.ex.
(d) le adjectivos:
(e) omne adjectivos derivate de illos
listate supra per prefixos; p.ex.
(f) le adjectivos del nomines geographic
e racial: (g) adjectivos grammatic indeclinabile como cata, que, e combinationes con -cunque; (h) certe adjectivos derivate per un elemento prefixate sed sin un suffixo (vide §164) del substantivos sequente:
substantivo adjectivo ----------- --------- anno p.ex. bienne, trienne caput p.ex. bicipite, precipite color p.ex. incolor, tricolor corde p.ex. concorde, discorde corno p.ex. bicorne, unicorne cuspide p.ex. bicuspide, multicuspide fin p.ex. affin, confin flor p.ex. multiflor, uniflor forma p.ex. multiforme, uniforme lingua p.ex. bilingue, crassilingue remo p.ex. bireme, trireme (i) le adjectivos sequente que representa le mesme typo como illos listate sub (h) sed le quales es formationes isolate o non pote esser facilemente recognoscite in lor composition:
enorme, exsangue, illustre, imbecille, §42 Concernente le formation de adjectivos e etiam del derivatos de illos, vide §§139, 140, 141, 142, 45-47, 152-153. |
When the comparative happens to be
preceded by the definite article, it
coincides with the superlative. The
examples below (§ 35) show that this
involves no confusion.
§ 35. Comparison of equality is expressed by tanto . . . como or si . . . como 'as . . . as.' The particle after the comparative is que 'than.' Comparative and superlative forms following the noun repeat the preceding definite article -- provided there is one. Un homine es tanto ben como un altere e frequentemente etiam un grande portion plus ben 'One man is as good as another and frequently even a great deal better' Iste historia es le minus interessante que io ha legite 'This story is the least interesting (which) I have read' Iste historia es le minus interessante del duo 'This story is the less interesting of the two' Del duo summas paga le plus parve 'Of the two amounts pay the lesser' Chesterlucks es plus blande 'Chesterlucks are milder' Le presidente del committee ajorna omne le questiones le plus urgente 'The committee chairman postpones all the most urgent questions' Illa ha le plus dulce temperamento e le ideas le plus naive 'She has the sweetest disposition and the most naive ideas'
§ 36. The idea of the so-called ABSOLUTE
SUPERLATIVE may be expressed as in
English by various constructions: A device used specifically for purposes of the absolute superlative is the suffix -issime. Su replica esseva un "non" multo emphatic 'His reply was a very emphatic no' Su replica esseva un emphatichissime "non" 'His reply was a most emphatic no' Ille parla in un maniera terribilemente interessante 'He talks in a terribly interesting fashion'
§ 37. The particles plus and minus,
which are used to express degrees of
comparison, are themselves expressive of
the comparative degree of adverbs which
admit no regular forms of comparison.
See § 44 below.
Similarly there are in the Interlingua
vocabulary a few adjectives which one
may wish to regard as irregular synonyms
of certain comparative and superlative
forms.
parve : plus parve : le plus parve or minor : le minor or minime 'small: smaller or lesser: smallest or least' magne: plus magne: le plus magne or major: le major or maxime 'great: greater: greatest' bon: plus bon: le plus bon or melior: le melior or optime 'good: better: best' mal: plus mal: le plus mal or pejor: le pejor or pessime 'bad: worse: worst' § 38. Theoretically EVERY ADJECTIVE CAN SERVE AS A PRONOUN. The noun it represents may either be one expressed in the preceding passage or it may be a more or less definite notion in the mind of the speaker. Le puero ha un conilio mascule e duo conilias. Le mascule pare assatis grasse pro esser edite 'The boy has one male rabbit and two she-rabbits. The male (one) seems fat enough to be eaten' A causa de su eterne mal humor nos appella le "le acre" 'Because of his eternal bad humor we call him "the acrid (one)"'
In the first example, 'the male' stands
for 'the male rabbit'; in the second
example, 'the acrid one' suggests a male
human being but not a specific noun like
'man, boy, teacher, etc.' In instances
of the latter kind it may be preferable
to speak of "adjectives used as nouns"
or "substantivized adjectives" rather
than of "adjectives used as pronouns."
Adjectives used as nouns include also
abstracts of the type 'the good, the
true, the beautiful' in the sense of
'goodness, truth, beauty.'
§ 39. Adjectives used as pronouns or nouns behave grammatically like ordinary nouns and can be pluralized. Le puero ha quatro conilios, duo mascules e duo feminines 'The boy has four rabbits, two male and two female ones' A causa de lor eterne mal humor nos appella le "le acres" 'Because of their eternal bad humor we call them "the acrid (ones)"' § 40. Numerous adjectives listed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary correspond to parallel noun entries.
ADJECTIVES: NOUNS:
---------------- ---------------------
bon 'good' bono 'good (as "the
good and the
beautiful");
good one ( = good
man); certificate,
coupon'
auguste 'august' augusto '(the) august
(one); (month) of
August'
Augusto 'August,
Augustus'
Augusta 'Augusta'
characteristic characteristica
'characteristic' 'characteristic
(trait)'
chromatic chromatica
'chromatic' 'chromatics'
indonesian indonesiano
'Indonesian' 'Indonesian'
natural natural 'disposition,
'natural' temperament'
provincial provincial
'provincial' 'provincial'
technic technico 'technician'
'technical' technica 'technique;
technology'
automobile automobile 'automobile'
'self-moving'
ambiente ambiente 'environment'
'ambient,
surrounding'
alte 'high' alto 'top; alto'
belligerente belligerente
'belligerent' 'belligerent'
comestibile comestibiles 'food'
'edible'
combustibile combustibile 'fuel'
'combustible'
composite composito 'compound'
'composite'
The possibility of thus turning
adjectives into nouns is limited by
nothing but common sense. Unless
otherwise crystallized by usage, an
adjective used as a full-fledged noun
(not simply as a pronoun for a noun
previously mentioned) expresses either
the abstract notion of the quality
represented by the adjective -- e.g. the
good, the beautiful, the sublime -- or a
thing or person characterized by what
the adjective expresses -- e.g. the
dear, the beloved, the former, the
wounded. When they express an abstract
quality and when they represent a male
being, adjectives turned into nouns
either assume the vowel ending o or
remain unchanged; when they represent
female beings they assume the vowel
ending a or remain unchanged.
The switch to the vowel endings o and a under the conditions stated is the norm. The adjectives which do not follow that norm are listed below in § 41. It should be noted, however, (a) that the list is exhaustive and hence includes a good many items for which the distinction of male and female has no practical significance, and (b) that the list is a "purists' list" so that the mistaken use of the endings o and a with its items cannot be considered a serious matter. § 41. Adjectives which cannot, when used as nouns, assume distinct forms in o and a although -- sense permitting -- they are capable of assuming the plural ending, include the following:
(a) all adjectives which end in -ce and
-u; e.g. rapace, precoce, dulce, hindu,
manchu, blau, etc.;
(b) all adjectives whose apparent stem
is followed by -e(n)se, -il(e), -ior,
-nte whether or not these endings are
clearly recognizable as suffixes; e.g.
futile, junior, consciente, clemente,
francese, etc.;
(c) all adjectives ending in the
suffixes -al, -ar, -bile, -oide, -plice;
e.g. natural, linear, amabile,
negroide, duplice, etc.
(d) the adjectives (e) all adjectives derived from those listed above by prefixes; e.g. supernatural, infidel, etc.;
(f) the geographical and racial name
adjectives (g) indeclinable grammatical adjectives like cata, que, and combinations with -cunque;
(h) certain adjectives derived by means
of a prefixed element but without a
suffix (see § 164) from the following
nouns:
anno (e.g. bienne, trienne) caput (e.g. bicipite, precipite) color (e.g. incolor, tricolor) corde (e.g. concorde, discorde) corno (e.g. bicorne, unicorne) cuspide (e.g. bicuspide, multicuspide) fin (e.g. affin, confin) flor (e.g. multiflor, uniflor) forma (e.g. multiforme, uniforme) lingua (e.g. bilingue, crassilingue) remo (e.g. bireme, trireme) (i) the following adjectives which represent the same type as those listed under (h) but which are either isolated formations or cannot be readily recognized in their composition:
commun, enorme, exsangue, illustre, imbecille
immun, impun, indemne, inerte, infam, inope,
insigne, insomne, semi-somne, isoscele,
macroscele, multicaule, myope, participe
§ 42. On the formation of adjectives as well as of derivatives from them, see §139, §140, §141, §142, §45-§47, §152-§153. |
|
========= ADVERBIOS ========= §43 Como in anglese il ha adverbios primari e derivate, e etiam expressiones adverbial.
§44 Le ADVERBIOS PRIMARI es entratas in
le dictionario e require nulle remarcas
grammatic. Exemplos es: nunc, minus,
plus, hic, ibi, aliquanto, semper, etc.
§45 Le DERIVATION regular DE ADVERBIOS ab adjectivos utilisa le suffixo -mente appendite al forma complete del adjectivo. Post un -c final le vocal -a es insertate. |
====== ADVERB ====== § 43. As in English there are primary and derived adverbs as well as adverbial phrases. § 44. The PRIMARY ADVERBS are items in the dictionary and call for no grammatical remarks. Examples are nunc 'now,' minus 'less,' plus 'more,' hic 'here,' ibi 'there,' aliquanto 'somewhat,' semper 'always,' etc. § 45. The regular DERIVATION OF ADVERBS from adjectives makes use of the suffix -mente added to the full form of the adjective. After a final -c the vowel -a- is inserted. |
adjectivo adverbio (...mente)
----------- --------------------
natural naturalmente
evidente evidentemente
remarcabile remarcabilemente
auxiliar auxiliarmente
clar clarmente
vorace voracemente
adjectivo adverbio (...amente)
----------- --------------------
photographic photographicamente
austriac austriacamente
| |
§46 In un serie de adverbios derivate,
le suffixo -mente pote esser usate con
le ultime adverbio solmente.
|
§ 46. In a series of derived adverbs,
the suffix -mente need be used only with
the last.
clar e franc : clar- e francamente
voluntari e frequente: voluntari- e
frequentemente
§ 47. A certain number of adverbs listed
in the Dictionary appear to be
irregularly derived from the
corresponding adjectives. Examples are:
Formations of this type should be thought of
as primary adverbs in the sense that they
cannot serve as models for additional
adverbial derivatives. The two most numerous
single groups of adverbs belonging here are
those ending in -e (that is, adverbs not
distinguishable in form from the corresponding
adjectives) and those ending in -o.
|
|
========== PRONOMINES ==========
----------------------------- §54 Pronomines PERSONAL insimul con REFLEXIVOS e POSSESSIVOS forma un patrono como monstrate in le tabula sequente: |
======= PRONOUN =======
-------------------------- § 54. The PERSONAL pronouns together with the REFLEXIVES and POSSESSIVES form a pattern as shown in the following table:
|
Pronomines
Tabula de pronomines personalSubjective Objective
(a) (b)Reflexive Possessive
(1) (2)Singular
1me persona
2nde persona
3tie persona (m)
3tie persona (f)
3tie persona (n)
Plural
1me persona
2nde persona
3tie persona (m)
3tie persona (f)
3tie persona (n)
io
tu
ille
illa
illo
nos
vos
illes
illas
illos
me me
te te
ille le
illa la
illo lo
nos nos
vos vos
illes les
illas las
illos los
me
te
se
se
se
nos
vos
se
se
se
mi mie
tu tue
su sue
su sue
su sue
nostre nostre
vostre vostre
lor lore
lor lore
lor lore
(a) - objecto post un preposition
(b) - objecto directe o indirecte; vide §72 infra.
(1) - ante un substantivo e non precedite per un articulo; vide §64 infra.
(2) - post un substantivo o precedite per un articulo; vide §64 infra.
|
§55 Le FUNCTIONES de iste pronomines es
identic con illos de lor equivalentes
anglese excepte pro deviationes minor
mentionate infra.
-------------------
§56 Le PRONOMINES PERSONAL in singular
es io, tu, ille, illa, illo.
§57 Le secunde persona singular tu es le forma familiar de adressar se, usate con infantes, amicos, in poesia, invocationes de esseres supernatural, etc. Le forma "formal" parallel de adressar se es vos cuje function primari es representar le secunde persona plural. Il ha nulle objection a extender le forma "formal" a tote usos que illo ha in anglese. Tu es mi amico.
Vos es mi amico. Nota: Un forma collateral de illa es ella; le duo non debe esser usate in le mesme texto. §58 Le tertie persona singular ha formas
que distingue - como in anglese -
masculin, feminin, e neutre. Le
distinction non es un question de genere
grammatic, sed de sexo.
... le femina ... Illa es belle.
... le libro ... Illo es interessante.
§59 In le tertie persona singular
neutre, il ha un forma inaccentuate il
pro uso como un subjecto grammatic.
In le ultime construction, un cambio in
le ordine de parolas elimina le subjecto
anticipitate il. Assi le formas
possibile es
Que callos es penose es ver, o
In iste formas, le subjecto real es 'que
callos es penose', sed le uso de formas
impersonal del verbo sin pronomine pote
esser etiam extendite a constructiones
del typo
----------------------------- §60 Le PRONOMINE PERSONAL INDEFINITE es on. Illo pote solmente esser usate como subjecto del phrase. In omne altere casos uno prende su placia.
On crede lo que on spera.
Quando on se promena in iste parco,
altere promenatores collide
frequentemente con uno.
Le forma uno pote etiam servir como le subjecto e assi es un synonymo de on. Illo es le forma pronominal del articulo indefinite un. Vide §21. §61 Le pronomines personal in le prime e secunde personas plural es nos e vos. In le tertie persona, illes, illas, illos es le formas plural regular del singulares ille, illa, illo. Le distinction de masculin, feminin, o neutre es optional in le plural. Como in anglese un sol forma illes pote esser usate pro omne antecedentes. Le forma masculin es usate pro referer a antecedentes mixte: Illes - non solmente ille sed etiam illa - es illac. §62 In contrasto a omne altere partes del discurso, le pronomines personal monstra un distinction de duo FORMAS DE CASO excepte in le prime e secunde personas plural; (i.e. io-me, tu-te, ille-le, illa-la, illo-lo; nos-nos, vos-vos, illes-les, illas-las, illos- los.) Le formas accusative in le prime e secunde personas singular es me e te. In le tertie personas le formas accusative, le, la, lo, les, las, los es le secunde syllaba del formas nominative correspondente. §63 Quanto al FUNCTIONES del formas del caso del pronomines personal, un distinction es facite inter
(a) le subjecto, Le forma nominative es usate como subjecto e - in le tertie personas - como objecto de un preposition. Le forma accusative es usate como objecto de un verbo e - in le prime e secunde personas
- como objecto de un preposition. Pro
summarisar omne iste formas in un
supervista paradigmatic, il pote esser
utile adaptar un phrase modello como
(1) Io tenta impressionar te con ille;
(2) Tu tenta impressionar le con illa;
(3) Ille tenta impressionar la con illo;
(4) Illa tenta impressionar lo con nos;
(5) Illo tenta impressionar nos con vos;
(6) Nos tenta impressionar vos con
illes;
(7) Vos tenta impressionar les con
illas;
(8) Illes tenta impressionar las con
illos;
(9) Illas tenta impressionar los con me;
(10) Illos tenta impressionar me con te;
-----------
§64 POSSESSIVOS es adjectivos e ha in
commun con altere adjectivos le
possibilitate de preceder o sequer le
substantivo que illos qualifica e de
esser usate como pronomines e
substantivos. Vide §§33, 38-40 supra.
Quando illos precede le substantivo le
construction normalmente non include le
articulo. In iste position - i.e., ante
un substantivo e non precedite per un
articulo - le formas de adjectivos
possessive omitte lor -e final (excepte
in nostre e vostre ubi illo seque un
gruppo de consonantes); (i.e. io-mi/mie,
tu-tu/tue, ille-su/sue, illa-su/sue,
illo-su/sue; nos- nostre/nostre,
vos-vostre/vostre, illes-lor/lore,
illas-lor/lore, illos-lor/lore.)
Patre nostre, qui es ...
mi matre, o le matre mie, o (rarmente) le mie matre
Ille labora nocte e die pro le suos.
§65 Pro le tertie persona masculin,
feminin, e neutre, il ha solo le
possessivos 'su' in le singular e 'lor'
in le plural. Ubi un distinction es
necessari, illo es exprimite per le
modellos sequente:
Mi patre e le suo de ille es amicos.
----------
§66 Le pronomine REFLEXIVE in omne le
tertie personas es se. In le prime e
secunde personas le forma accusative del
pronomines personal functiona como
reflexivos; (i.e. io-me, tu-te, ille-se,
illa-se, illo-se; nos-nos, vos-vos,
illes-se, illas-se, illos-se.) Ille se marita con illa, e illa se marita con ille. Illes se marita con illas, e illas se marita con illes. §67 Constructiones reflexive es primarimente del typo in le qual le objecto del verbo es logicamente identic con le subjecto. Nota que isto produce constructiones reflexive ubi le anglese sovente omitte un pronomine de objecto, como in "I wash" con le senso de "I wash myself: Io me lava."
Illa se face indispensabile.
Io me vide como alteros me vide.
§68 Constructiones reflexive es etiam
usate pro exprimer ideas passive quando
il ha nulle agente involvite. "These
books are sold at Bloomingdale's" pote
esser reimplaciate per le traduction de
"These books sell themselves at
Bloomingdale's." Nota que isto coperi
constructiones del typo, "These books
sell well."
Iste libros se vende al magazin de Bloomingdale. Iste libro se vende multo ben.
Tal cappellos se vide frequentemente.
§69 PRONOMINES PERSONAL ACCUSATIVE E
PRONOMINES REFLEXIVE (excepte in constructiones
prepositional) precede le formas
temporal simple del verbo, sed seque
participios, formas imperative, e
infinitivos.
Pro surprender les, io debeva currer.
Dirigente se verso le sol, illa precava.
Io collabora con illes. Monstra lo a ille. §70 In tempores composite que consiste
de un forma temporal auxiliar plus un
infinitivo o participio passate, le
pronomines personal o reflexive pote
preceder le verbo auxiliar o sequer le
participio o infinitivo.
Io va surprender les.
In constructiones con facer, le duo
positiones del pronomine suggere
logicamente duo significationes
distincte. Io le face batter; (i.e. il es ille qui batte.) Io face batter le; (i.e. il es ille qui es battite.) §71 In un combination de duo pronomines,
le un personal e le altere reflexive, le
pronomine reflexive precede. Io me lo dice.
In un combination de duo pronomines
personal, le pronomine cuje relation al
verbo es le plus indirecte o remote
precede.
Illa me lo ha dicite.
Pro dicer me lo, illa debeva telephonar.
In un combination de un pronomine personal simple o reflexive con un altere que es precedite per un preposition o con un objecto substantive, le pronomine simple precede.
Illa ha le tempore pro intertener se con
illes.
Illa ha le tempore pro intertener se con su canes.
Illa ha intertenite se con illes. §72 Nota: Il ha nulle distinction inter
formas accusative e dative del
pronomines como illo que appare in
alicun altere linguas. Parallel al usage
anglese le idea dative es clarificate
pro differentiation o emphase per le
preposition a.
Io inviava un telegramma a mi granpatre.
Io lo inviava a mi granpatre.
Io le inviava un telegramma.
Io le lo inviava. §73 Le placia de pronomines in le phrase
non es rigidemente fixate. Le
paragraphos precedente describe le norma
del qual deviationes es justificate per
considerationes de rhythmo o emphase.
Ille ama arachides e illa ama se.
Io vos crede si vos crede me.
§74 Le RELATIVOS es que e qual. Le prime
es primarimente un pronomine relative,
le secunde es un adjectivo relative.
Le ultime traino que pote portar me ibi
a tempore parti in cinque minutas.
Ille fuma opium, qual vitio ille ha
acquirite durante le guerra.
§75 Le forma qual precedite per le articulo definite le es pronominal e pote esser pluralisate.
Le cavallo e le asino le qual non esseva
sellate curreva a velocitate equal. (le
qual = le asino)
Le cavallo e le asino le quales non
esseva sellate ... (le quales = le
cavallo e le asino)
§76 Le FUNCTIONES DE CASOS - con que e
qual - es portate per le prepositiones
de (pro le genitivo) e a (pro le
dativo). Il ha un genitivo relative
special, cuje, e un forma qui, que es
usate solmente pro personas e solmente
como subjecto o post un preposition.
Le documentos que le spia portava con se esseva multo importante
Le documentos con que le spia escappava esseva multo importante
Le documentos de que le spia habeva copias esseva multo importante
Le documentos cuje importantia esseva dubitose incriminava le spia
Le documentos del quales le spia habeva copias...
Le documentos, le importantia del quales esseva dubitose...
Le spia qui portava le documentos esseva habile
Le spia que le agente de policia habeva vidite portava con se le plus importante documentos
Le spia de qui le policia habeva establite le identitate...
Le spia cuje identitate le policia habeva establite...
Nota: In contrasto al usage anglese, il
ha nulle constructiones relative sin un
pronomine relative.
The tobacco you smoke is abominable:
The onions you ate smell to high heaven: §77 Pro le pronomine relative lo que, vide §21 supra.
-------------- §78 Le DEMONSTRATIVOS es adjectivos que
pote esser usate como pronomines. Assi
illos es capabile de assumer formas
concordante con le numero e sexo de lor
antecedentes. In lor selection de
desinentias pronominal illos non seque
le patrono del adjectivos substantivate
(-e: neutre; -o: masculin o neutre; -a:
feminin); in su loco illos seque le
patrono del pronomines personal del
tertie persona §79 Le demonstrativo de proximitate es iste; e de distantia ille. iste homine e ille femina ...
ille homine e iste femina ...
iste tabula e ille libro ...
ille tabula e iste libro ...
Iste pais es libere. Isto es un libere pais.
Iste puera odia illa.
Que es isto? Que es illo?
Ille idiota! Istes es mi studentes. Istas es mi filias.
Da me ille libros. Illos es le mies.
Iste edition es plus complete que ille duo.
Iste edition es plus complete que illos.
Un femina: - Io es una de illas qui
crede que le matrimonio es sancte.
Un homine: - Io es uno de illes qui
crede que le matrimonio es sancte.
Nota: Un forma collateral de ille es celle; le duo non pote esser usate in le mesme texto. |
§ 55. The FUNCTIONS of these pronouns
are identical with those of their
English equivalents except for minor
deviations mentioned below.
----------------- § 56. The PERSONAL PRONOUNS in the singular are io 'I,' tu 'you (thou),' ille 'he,' illa 'she,' illo 'it.' § 57. The second person singular tu is the familiar form of address used with children, friends, in poetry, invocations of supernatural beings, etc. The parallel "formal" form of address is vos 'you' whose primary function is to represent the second person plural. There is no objection to extending the "formal" form to all uses it has in English. Tu es mi amico 'You are my friend'
Vos es mi amico 'You are my friend';
note that vos is identified as a
singular by amico; 'You are my friends'
runs Vos es mi amicos
Note: A collateral form of illa is ella; the two should not be used in the same text.
§ 58. The third person singular
distinguishes -- as in English --
masculine, feminine, and neuter forms.
The distinction is not a matter of
grammatical gender but of sex.
... le femina... Illa es belle
... le libro... Illo es interessante § 59. In the third person singular neuter there is an unstressed form il 'it' for use as a grammatical subject.
Il niva 'It snows' In the last construction a change in word order, 'That corns are painful is true,' eliminates the anticipating subject 'it.' Hence the possible forms
Que callos es penose es ver or In these forms the real subject is que callos es penose, but the use of impersonal verb forms without pronoun may also be extended to constructions of the type
non importa 'it does not matter';
--------------------------- § 60. The INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN is on 'one.' It can only be used as the subject of the sentence. In all other cases uno takes its place. On crede lo que on spera 'One believes what one hopes' Quando on se promena in iste parco, altere promenatores collide frequentemente con uno 'When one takes a walk in this park, other walkers frequently bump into one' The form uno can likewise serve as subject and is then synonymous with on. It is the pronominal form of the indefinite article. See above §21. § 61. The personal pronouns in the first and second persons plural are nos 'we' and vos 'you.' In the third person, illes, illas, illos 'they' are regular plural forms of the corresponding singulars ille, illa, illo, 'he, she, it.' The distinction of masculine, feminine, neuter is optional in the plural. As in English a single form 'they' illes may be used for all antecedents. The masculine form is used to refer to mixed antecedents: Illes -- non solmente ille sed etiam illa -- es illac 'They -- not only he but she too -- are there.'
§ 62. In contrast to all other parts of
speech, the personal pronouns show a
distinction of two CASE FORMS except in
the first and second persons plural. The
second-case forms in the first and
second persons singular are me 'me' and
te 'thee (you).' In the third persons
the second-case forms, le, la, lo, les,
las, los 'him, her, it, them' are the
second syllable of the corresponding
first-case forms.
§ 63. As for the FUNCTIONS of the personal-pronoun case forms, a distinction is made between
(a) subject, The first-case form is used as subject and -- in the third persons --as object of a preposition. The second-case form is used as object of a verb and -- in the first and second persons
-- as object of a preposition.
To summarize all these forms in a
paradigmatic survey, it may be useful to
adapt a model sentence like
-- Io tenta impressionar te con ille 'I am trying to impress you with him' to all persons in both singular and plural.
1. io ... te ... ille
2. tu ... le ... illa
3. ille ... la ... illo
4. illa ... lo ... nos
5. illo ... nos ... vos
6. nos ... vos ... illes
7. vos ... les ... illas
8. illes ... las ... illos
9. illas ... los ... me
10. illos ... me ... te
Some of these statements are rather
artificial. They are given for the sake
of completeness and seem at least
theoretically possible if construed as
follows:
1. 'I am trying to impress you (thee)
with him'
(e.g.: I am trying to impress you with
what I tell you about my big brother)
2. 'You (thou) are trying to impress him
with her'
(e.g.: You are trying to impress your
brother with your beautiful fiancee)
3. 'He is trying to impress her with it'
(e.g.: He is trying to impress the girl
by showing her his new automobile)
4. 'She is trying to impress it with us'
(e.g.: She has invited us to her concert
because she wants to impress her
audience with the number of her friends)
5. 'It is trying to impress us with you
(pl.)'
(e.g.: The government is trying to
impress us, the people, with the fact
that you, members of a constitutional
assembly, are still allowed to convene)
6. 'We are trying to impress you (pl.)
with them (masc.)'
(e.g.: We are trying to impress you, who
are poor friends of ours, with our
wealthy fathers)
7. 'You are trying to impress them
(masc.) with them (fem.)'
(e.g.: You are trying to impress the
boys with what you tell them about your
girl friends)
8. 'They (masc.) are trying to impress
them (fem.) with them' (neut.)
(e.g.: The boys are trying to impress
the girls with their beautiful
automobiles)
9. 'They (fem.) are trying to impress
them (neut.) with me'
(e.g.: The girls are trying to impress
their consciences with the fact that
they have helped me)
10. 'They (neut.) are trying to impress
me with you (thee)'
(e.g.: The powers of darkness are trying
to impress me with you, the all-powerful
Mephistopheles).
-----------
§ 64. The POSSESSIVES are adjectives and
share with other adjectives the
possibility of preceding or following
the noun they qualify and of being used
as pronouns and nouns. See §§ 33, 38-40
above. When they precede the noun the
construction normally dispenses with an
article. In this position -- i.e.,
before a noun and not preceded by an
article -- the forms of the possessive
adjectives drop their final e (except in
nostre and vostre where it follows a
consonant cluster).
Mi fratre e tu soror celebra lot nuptias
Mi fratre e le fratre tue es bon amicos
'My brother and your brother are good
friends'
Mi fratre e le me es bon amicos
'My brother and yours are good friends'
Patre nostre, qui es ...
'Our Father, Who art ...'
mi matre or le matre mie or (rarely) le
mie matre 'my mother'
Ille labora nocte e die pro le suos
'He works night and day for his people'
§ 65. For the third person masculine,
feminine, and neuter, there is only one
possessive each in the singular and
plural. Where a distinction is needed,
it is brought out after the following
models:
Ille e illa velia tote le nocte al lecto
de su (or del) moriente patre de illa
'He and she are sitting up all night at
her dying father's bedside'
Mi patre e le suo (or le) de ille es
amicos
'My father and his are friends'
----------
§ 66. The REFLEXIVE pronoun in all third
persons is se 'himself, herself,
themselves.' In the first and second
persons the second-case forms of the
personal pronouns function as
reflexives.
Io me marita con te, e tu te marita con
me
'I get married (marry myself) to you and
you get married (marry yourself) to me'
Ille se marita con illa, e illa se
marita con ille
Illes se marita con illas, e illas se
marita con illes
§ 67. Reflexive constructions are
primarily of the type in which the
object of the verb happens to be
logically identical with the subject.
Note that this makes reflexive
constructions which in English often
dispense with an object pronoun, as in I
wash' in the sense of 'I wash myself.'
Illa se face indispensabile
'She makes herself indispensable'
Io me vide como alteros me vide
'I see myself as others see me'
§ 68. Reflexive constructions are also
used to express passive ideas when there
is no agent involved. 'These books are
sold at Bloomingdale's' may be replaced
by the translation of 'These books sell
themselves at Bloomingdale's.' Note
that this covers constructions of the
type, 'These books sell well.'
Iste libros se vende al magazin de
Bloomingdale
Iste libro se vende multo ben
Tal cappellos se vide frequentemente
'Such hats are often seen' or 'One often
sees such hats'
§ 69. SECOND-CASE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS (except in prepositional
constructions) precede the simple tense
forms of the verb but follow the
participles, imperative forms, and the
infinitive.
Io les surprendeva
'I surprised them'
Pro surprender les io debeva currer
'In order to surprise them I had to run'
Dirigente se verso le sol, illa precava
'Turning toward the sun, she prayed'
Io collabora con illes
'I collaborate with them'
Monstra lo a ille
'Show it to him'
§ 70. In the compound tenses which
consist of an auxiliary tense form plus
an infinitive or past participle, the
personal or reflexive pronouns may
precede the auxiliary or follow the
participle or infinitive.
Io ha surprendite les or Io les ha
surprendite
'I have surprised them'
Io va surprender les or Io les va
surprender
'I will surprise them'
In constructions with facer 'to cause
to, to make,'
the two positions of the pronoun suggest
logically two distinct meanings.
Io le face batter le
'I make him beat him'
Io le face batter
'I make him beat'
Io face batter le
'(I make beat him) I have him beaten'
§ 71. In a combination of two pronouns,
one personal and the other reflexive,
the latter precedes.
Illa se nos monstra
'She shows herself to us'
Io me lo dice
'I tell (it to) myself'
In a combination of two personal
pronouns that one precedes whose
relation to the verb is more indirect or
remote.
Illa me lo dice
'She tells (it to) me'
Illa me lo ha dicite or Illa ha dicite me lo
'She has told (it to) me'
Pro dicer me lo illa debeva telephonar
'To tell (it to) me, she had to telephone'
In a combination of one simple personal
or reflexive pronoun with another
preceded by a preposition or with a noun
object, the simple pronoun precedes.
Illa ha le tempore pro intertener se con
illes
Illa ha le tempore pro intertener se con
su canes
'She has the time to amuse herself with
her dogs'
Illa ha intertenite se con illes or Illa
se ha intertenite con illes
'She has amused herself with them'
§ 72. Note: There is no distinction
between accusative and dative forms of
the pronouns like that which appears in
some other languages. Parallel to
English usage the dative idea is
clarified for differentiation or
emphasis by the preposition a.
Io inviava un telegramma a mi granpatre
'I sent a wire to my grand-father'
Io lo inviava a mi granpatre
'I sent it to my grandfather'
Io le inviava un telegramma
'I sent him a wire'
Io le lo inviava or Io lo inviava a ille
'I sent him it' or 'I sent it to him'
§ 73. The place of pronouns in the
sentence is not rigidly fixed. The
preceding paragraphs describe the norm
from which deviations are justified by
considerations of rhythm or emphasis.
Ille ama arachides e illa ama se
'He loves peanuts and she loves herself'
Io vos crede si vos crede me
'I believe you if you believe me'
---------
§ 74. The RELATIVES are que and qual.
The former is primarily a relative
pronoun, the latter is a relative
adjective.
Le ultime traino que pote portar me ibi
a tempore parti in cinque minutas
'The last train that can get me there on
time will leave in five minutes'
Ille fuma opium, qual vitio ille ha
acquirite durante le guerra
'He smokes opium, which vice he acquired
during the war'
§ 75. The form qual preceded by the
definite article le is pronominal and
can be pluralized.
Le cavallo e le asino le qual non esseva
sellate curreva a velocitate equal
'The horse and the donkey which (latter)
was not saddled ran at equal speed'
Le cavallo e le asino le quales non
esseva sellate...
'The horse and the donkey which were not
saddled...'
§ 76. The FUNCTIONS OF CASES -- with
both que and qual -- are carried by the
prepositions de (for the genitive) and a
(for the dative). There is a special
genitive relative, cuje 'whose,' and a
form qui 'who, whom' which is used only
for persons and only as subject or after
a preposition.
Le documentos que le spia portava con se
esseva multo importante
'The documents which the spy carried
with him were very important'
Le documentos con que le spia escappava
esseva multo importante
'The documents with which the spy
escaped were very important'
Le documentos de que le spia habeva
copias esseva multo importante
'The documents of which the spy had
copies were very important'
Le documentos cuje importantia esseva
dubitose incriminava le spia
'The documents whose importance was
dubious incriminated the spy'
Le documentos del quales le spia habeva
copias...
'The documents of which the spy had
copies...'
Le documentos, le importantia del quales
esseva dubitose...
'The documents whose importance was
dubious...'
Le spia qui portava le documentos esseva
habile
'The spy who carried the documents was
skillful'
Le spia que le agente de policia habeva
vidite portava con se le plus importante
documentos
'The spy whom the policeman had seen
carried with him the most important
documents'
Le spia de qui le policia habeva
establite le identitate...
'The spy whose identity the police had
established...'
Le spia cuje identitate le policia
habeva establite...
Note: In contrast to English usage there
are no relative constructions without a
relative pronoun.
'The tobacco you smoke is abominable'
Le tabaco que vos fuma es abominabile
'The onions you ate smell to high
heaven'
Le cibollas que tu ha mangiate odora al
alte celo
§ 77. For the relative pronoun lo que
'what,' see § 21 above.
--------------
§ 78. The DEMONSTRATIVES are adjectives
which can be used as pronouns. Hence
they are capable of assuming forms
agreeing with the number and sex of
their antecedents. In their choice of
pronominal endings they do not fall into
the pattern of substantivized adjectives
(-e: neutral; -o: male or neuter; -a:
female); instead they follow the pattern
of personal third person pronouns (-e:
male; -a: female; -o: neuter).
§ 79. The demonstrative of proximity is
iste 'this'; that of remoteness ille
'that.'
iste homine e ille femina
'this man and that woman'
ille homine e iste femina
'that man and this woman'
iste tabula e ille libro
'this table and that book'
ille tabula e iste libro
'that table and this book'
Iste pais es libere
'This country is free'
Isto es un libere pais
'This is a free country'
Iste puera odia illa
'This girl hates that (one)'
Que es isto? Que es illo?
'What is this? What is that?'
ille idiota!
'That idiot!'
Istes es mi studentes
'These are my students'
Istas es mi fillas
'These are my daughters'
Da me ille libros. Illos es le mies
'Give me those books; they (those) are
mine'
Iste edition es plus complete que ille duo
'This edition is more complete than those two'
Iste edition es plus complete que illos
'This edition is more complete than those'
(Woman speaking)
Io es una de illas qui crede que le
matrimonio es sancte;
'I am one of those who believe that
matrimony is sacred'
(Man speaking)
Io es uno de illes qui crede...
'I am one of those who believe that
matrimony is sacred'
Note: A collateral form of ille is
celle; the two should not be used in the
same text.
|
|
====== Verbos ====== §80 Le verbo ha un infinitivo e duo participios (passate e presente); illo ha un imperativo, e quatro tempores simple (presente, passato, futuro, conditional). Illo usa verbos auxiliar pro formar un serie complete de tempores composite como etiam le passivo. Le verbo ha nulle inflexion personal e nulle subjunctivo (sed vide §111 infra). Il ha nulle verbo auxiliar que corresponde al anglese {to do} pro uso in constructiones emphatic e interrogative. Il ha nulle formas progressive crystallisate (sed vide §94).
----------
§81 Le INFINITIVO termina sempre in -r
con un del vocales -a, -e, -i precedente:
crear: cre-ar (Pro un systema verbal collateral con un distinction ulterior de infinitivos in -er e -ere, vide infra §148 nota; etiam le nota concernente participios, §97.) §82 Concernente le formationes de infinitivos e etiam de derivatos de illos, vide §§140, 145-150, 153-154, 155, 157.
§83 Le infinitivo pote esser usate como
un substantivo e in iste function illo
corresponde al gerundio anglese.
le venir del estate ...
Iste viagiar de un pais al altere es
fatigante.
le ir e venir del clientes ...
Le faceres del formicas es interessante
a observar.
Nota: Como le equivalente del substantivo o quasi-substantivo anglese in {-ing}, le infinitivo occurre con omne sortas de prepositiones in constructiones correspondente al exemplos anglese {without going: sin vader}, {by doing: per facer}, {before opening: ante aperir}, etc. Isto etiam coperi le typo {for sewing: pro/a/de suer} como in {machine for sewing}, i.e., {sewing machine: machina a/de suer}, e finalmente le patrono {of doing: a/de facer} como in {capable of doing: capabile de facer}, e {we think of doing: nos pensa a/de facer.}
Illes le condemnava sin audir su
defensa.
Per rumper le osso, on potera forsan
rectificar su gamba.
Post haber passate le suburbios, on pote
avantiar plus rapidemente.
Io vole ben humiliar me ante ille usque
corriger su grammatica, sed non usque
pagar su debitas.
Le sala a attender deberea esser
equipate de un machina a scriber.
Comencia tu studios per arder omne
libros.
Illa es capace de perder le traino.
Nos pensa ir al theatro.
Concernente le manco de un equivalente del anglese {of} in le ultime exemplo, vide §87 infra. §84 Separate del phrase, le infinitivo non es precedite per un preposition correspondente al anglese {to} como in {to go}, etc. - Iste {to} es un phenomeno anglese peculiar e non debe esser confundite con le uso de {to} ante un infinitivo intra un phrase complete. Hic, {to} ha un function grammatic e es requirite o omittite in conformitate con regulas grammatic specific le quales face nos dicer "I need to eat" con {to} e "I need not eat" sin {to}. - Intra un phrase le equivalente de anglese {to} ante infinitivos es de o a o pro o nihil como differentiate infra.
§85 Le preposition a es usate quando le
infinitivo pare representar un objectivo
post un adjectivo o un construction
verbal.
Nos aspira a realisar nostre ideales.
§86 Le preposition pro es usate quando
le infinitivo pare representar un
proposito como in un construction
anglese con {in order to: a fin de.}
Ille venira pro reparar le fenestra.
Io mangia pro viver, sed quando nos ha
globos de patata io vive pro mangiar.
§87 Un preposition non es necessari quando le infinitivo pote esser interpretate como un substantivo o como si illo occupa le placia de un substantivo.
(a) In un exemplo como "It is difficult
to walk in the sand," le infinitivo es
le subjecto logic e assi le equivalente
de un substantivo; le enunciation es
identic con "Walking in the sand is
difficult." Hic le infinitivo appare sin
un preposition precedente: Il es difficile vader in le arena, o Vader in le arena es difficile. Vide §83 supra.
(b) Quandocunque un verbo transitive es
sequite per un infinitivo dependente
como in Io plana vader al campania. Assi, post un verbo transitive le infinitivo dependente non es introducite per un preposition.
In van io ha tentate convincer le.
Il es facile rider con le ridentes e
difficile plorar con le plorantes.
Il es un grande privilegio esser inter
vos iste vespere.
Nos intende ameliorar nostre methodos de
agricultura.
Ille diceva que su soror sperava revider
nos. Illa time esser sol con le patiente.
§88 Un preposition ante le infinitivo non pote esser usate (a) post constructiones con voler, poter, deber, soler e (b) post constructiones con lassar, facer, etiam vider, audir e altere verbos de perception sensorial quando illos ha un objecto que es al mesme tempore le subjecto del infinitivo sequente, como in "I see him come: Io le vide venir."
Io volerea dormir, sed illa debe dansar.
Nota: In le enunciation, Io face le studente acceptar mi consilio,
Logicamente le secunde enunciation debe
esser un base pro le duo assertiones, Io face acceptar lo: (i.e., Io fortia gente generalmente a acceptar lo.) De facto le formas "Io le face acceptar," e "Io face acceptar lo" es correcte, ben que le secunde apparerea in anglese non como "I make accept it," sed como "I have it accepted," o "I cause it to be accepted." Exemplos similar es:
Illa me faceva vender le can.
§89 Le preposition neutre usate con le
infinitivo es de.
Io es felice de revider vos.
Ille se effortia de mitter le motor in motion.
§90 Nota: Constructiones anglese del
typo "I want him to come" pote solmente
esser rendite como "I want that he come:" Io vole que ille veni.
Constructiones anglese como per exemplo
"I had the pleasure of seeing her" es
sempre rendite como "I had the pleasure
to see her:"
§91 LE INFINITIVO ES USATE pro exprimer
ordines general, prohibitiones, etc.
Non fumar! §92 Le infinitivo es usate post particulas interrogative in accordo con le modello anglese, "I don't know what to do."
Io non sape que facer.
------------------- §93 Le PARTICIPIO PRESENTE termina in -nte que es addite al infinitivo minus su -r final, con le stipulation que un -i precedente se cambia a -ie.
crear: cre-ante Nota: Le participios presente sequente ha -iente como le forma preferite ben que le infinitivos correspondente termina in -er: capiente e omne le compositos de -cipente (incipiente, etc.), faciente e omne le compositos in -ficiente (deficiente, etc.), omne le compositos de -jiciente (injiciente, etc.), sapiente, e omne le compositos de -spiciente (inspiciente, etc.). - Proque le suffixo -antia e su variantes -entia, -ientia (vide §152) es derivate ab formas de participio presente, lor connexion con verbos es parallel al formation de participios presente. Cata verbo con un participio presente in -iente rende un substantivo in -ientia, etc. §94 Le participio presente es un adjectivo e como un tal ha omne le characteristicas de altere adjectivos. Vide §§32-39, 41 supra e 152 infra. Nota: Le participio presente ha nulle function in le paradigma verbal, nam il ha nulle forma progressive crystallisate correspondente al anglese "I am buying, hoping," etc. Sed expressiones como "A dead dog cannot be living" pote naturalmente esser traducite litteralmente si illos ha senso. Un can morte non pote esser vivente.
Le climate de Alaska va deveniente plus benigne.
Minnehaha significa "aqua ridente."
Transversante le oceano, io habeva un placente aventura.
Duo passantes videva le accidente.
Essente surveliate per le policia, ille non osava mover se.
------------------
§95 Le PARTICIPIO PASSATE termina in -te
que es addite al infinitivo minus su -r
final, con le stipulation que un
precedente -e se cambia a -i.
crear: cre-ate Nota: Le participios passate es accentuate regularmente super le vocal ante le ultime consonante. Concernente un altere systema de accento collateral, vide nota-pede a §148 infra.
§96 Como in anglese, le participio
passate es usate in tempores composite
passate e in le passivo. Vide §§105-106,
112-113 infra. Illo es etiam un
adjectivo e como un tal ha omne le
characteristicas de altere adjectivos.
Illo occurre etiam como un participio
absolute. Le pluvia, impellite per le vento, entra trans le fenestra rumpite. Io es fatigate.
Le inviata de Valhalla clama le animas
del occiditos.
Impellite per le vento, le pluvia entra in le fenestra.
§97 Nota: Il ha numeros considerabile de
adjectivos verbal del typo fisse, docte,
benedicte, etc. pertinente al verbos
finder, docer, benedicer, etc. Lor
signification es identic con illo del
participios passate normal findite,
docite, benedicite, etc. in uso
adjectival. Adjectivos verbal de iste
typo pote servir como participios
passate in omne le functiones inclusive
illo de formar tempores composite del
passato. Le regula que coperi iste
puncto es le sequente: Cata verbo que ha
un thema special contracte (= irregular)
de derivation listate in le Dictionario
pote formar un participio passate
collateral per adder le desinentia -e a
ille thema contracte. Vide etiam §152, le
ultime puncto.
Ille es absorbite in su labor. In le campania on non se senti subjicite al haste del vita moderne. In le campania on non se senti subjecte al haste del vita moderne. §98 Le FORMAS TEMPORAL ha nulle inflexion personal e require generalmente un subjecto exprimite.
----------------
§99 Le TEMPORE PRESENTE es formate del
infinitivo per omitter le -r final. Illo
es accentuate in conformitate con le
regulas providite in §10.
crear: Io (tu, etc.) crea.
§100 Le tempore presente functiona
naturalmente como le PRESENTE UNIVERSAL.
Illo se extende a in le futuro plus
liberemente que es possibile in anglese,
specialmente quando le construction
contine un adverbio inambigue de
tempore. Deo ama le homines.
Io non sape lo que es le nomine de iste
animal.
Iste vespere io recipe mi canetto.
§101 Le verbos haber, esser, e vader ha
un forma simplificate de tempore
presente que consiste del prime syllaba
del infinitivo: ha, es, va.
Proque io ha un terribile mal de capite,
il es necessari que io va al doctor.
In le caso de esser, un forma plural distincte optional, son, es disponibile.
---------------
§102 Le TEMPORE PASSATE es formate del
infinitivo per omitter le -r final e
adder le desinentia temporal -va. crear: Io (tu, etc.) creava. vider: Io (tu, etc.) videva. audir: Io (tu, etc.) audiva.
§103 Le functiones del tempore passate
es le mesme como in anglese. Nota
specialmente su uso in constructiones
del typo, "If he was (were) here, I
might feel better :" Si ille esseva hic, io poterea sentir me melio. Heri nos voleva vider le Mercator de Venetia, sed nos non poteva obtener billetes, e tunc nos videva le Princessa del Czardas. Si vos cognosceva iste operetta, vos comprenderea que io prefere Kalman a Shakespeare. §104 Pro esser, un passato irregular optional era es disponibile. §105 Le TEMPORES COMPOSITE DEL PASSATO (presente perfecte e passato perfecte) es formate como in anglese per le presente e passato del verbo auxiliar haber e le participio passate.
------------------------- crear: Io (tu, etc.) ha create. vider: Io (tu, etc.) ha vidite. audir: Io (tu, etc.) ha audite.
------------------------ crear: Io (tu, etc.) habeva create. vider: Io (tu, etc.) habeva vidite. audir: Io (tu, etc.) habeva audite.
§106 Le functiones del tempores
composite passate coperi omne le
functiones del formas anglese
correspondente. Le presente perfecte non
es tanto restricte como in anglese e es
synonyme con le passato simple.
Ludovico Dece-Sex ha perdite su capite.
------------- §107 Le FUTURO es formate del infinitivo per adder le desinentia accentuate -a, non distinguite per un marca de accento. crear: Io (tu, etc.) creara. vider: Io (tu, etc.) videra. audir: Io (tu, etc.) audira.
-----------
Le CONDITIONAL es formate del infinitivo
per adder le desinentia -ea accentuate
super le -e, sed non distinguite per un
marca de accento.
crear: Io (tu, etc.) crearea. §108 Le functiones del futuro e conditional non differe del usage anglese. Nota: Futuro e conditional ambes ha formas composite collateral consistente del infinitivo con le verbos auxiliar va e velle, respectivemente.
Si ille attende assatis longe, ille
habera un barba.
Si illa habeva quatro rotas, illa
esserea un omnibus.
Si io esseva un avetto, io volarea a
te.
§109 Constructiones verbal plus complexe
- si on vole appellar los tempores o non - pote liberemente esser formate per le materia discutite supra.
Nos haberea potite venir.
----------
§110 Le IMPERATIVO es identic con le
presente, sed in general illo usa nulle
pronomines.
Ama tu vicino como te mesme!
Como in anglese, le pronomine occurre
occasionalmente con le imperativo.
Face tu lo que io commanda.
§111 Le functiones del imperativo pote
naturalmente esser assumite per un
tempore presente emphatic.
Tu veni hic immediatemente!
Pro le uso del infinitivo con valor imperative, vide §91 supra. Le
construction elliptic con 'Que ... [Io vole que ...]' es possibile con omne le
personas e servi in particular a exprimer le imperativo del prime persona
plural.
Que ille veni!
Le parola sia in le dictionario pote
esser interpretate como un conjunction o
como un subjunctivo exceptional de
esser. Appercipite in le secunde senso,
illo entra in constructiones de valor
imperative. Io ama lilios del valles, sia in le campo, sia in un vaso.
Le juvene maritos sia felice! §112 Le verbo auxiliar del PASSIVO es esser. Le formas temporal de iste verbo auxiliar es completemente coperite per le discussion precedente del conjugation verbal. Le sequente summario de iste formas pote esser trovate conveniente.
--------------------------
---------------------------- Le formas passive complete consiste del verbo auxiliar esser sequite per un participio passate.
-----------------------
-------------------------------- Ille habeva essite surveliate per le policia. Ille habera essite surveliate per le policia. (= va haber essite)
Ille haberea essite surveliate per le policia. (= velle haber essite)
§113 Le infinitivos passive e
participios passive similarmente se
compone del infinitivo e participio del
verbo auxiliar con le participio passate
del verbo principal que seque:
Nota que le passivo sol non pote esser
distinguite de un forma de esser con un
adjectivo participial.
Io es maritate pote significar "Io es maritate
(action/passivo)" e "Io es maritate
(condition/ adjectivo)."
§114 Le functiones del passivo es le
mesme como in anglese. Nota, totevia, le
uso del reflexivo in loco de un passivo
anglese. Vide §68 supra. De plus un
passivo anglese pote sovente esser
rendite per un construction impersonal
con on, como in
On non nos ama hic: Nos non es amate hic.
|
==== VERB ==== § 80. The verb has an infinitive and two participles (past and present); it has an imperative; and it has four simple tenses (present, past, future, conditional). It uses auxiliaries to form a full set of compound tenses as well as the passive. It has no personal inflection and no subjunctive (but see § 111 below). There is no auxiliary corresponding to English 'to do' for use in emphatic and interrogative constructions. There are no crystallized progressive forms (but see § 94 below).
---------- § 81. The INFINITIVE ends always in -r with one of the vowels a, e, i preceding*
crear 'to create' * For a collateral verbal system with a further distinction of infinitives in -r and -re after -e-, see below § 148 note; also the note on participles, § 97. § 82. On the formation of infinitives as well as of derivatives from them, see §§ 140, 145-150, 153-155, 157.
§ 83. The infinitive can be used as a
noun and as such it corresponds to the
English gerund.
le venir del estate 'the coming of summer' Iste viagiar de un pais al altere es fatigante 'This traveling from one country to another is fatiguing' le ir e venir del clientes... 'the coming and going of customers' Le faceres del formicas es interessante a observar 'The doings of ants are interesting to watch'
Note: As the equivalent of the English
noun or quasi-noun in -ing, the
infinitive occurs with all sorts of
prepositions in constructions
corresponding to the English examples
'without going, by doing, before
opening, etc.' This also covers the type
'for sewing' as in 'machine for sewing,'
i.e., 'sewing machine,' and finally the
pattern 'of doing' as in 'capable of
doing' and 'we think of doing. ...'
Illes le condemnava sin audir su defensa 'They condemned him without listening to his defense' Per rumper le osso on potera forsan rectificar su gamba 'By breaking the bone one may perhaps be able to straighten his leg' Post haber passate le suburbios on pote avantiar plus rapidemente 'After having passed the suburbs one can get ahead faster' Io vole ben humiliar me ante ille usque corriger su grammatica sed non usque pagar su debitas 'I am willing to humiliate myself before him to (the point of) correcting his grammar but not to (the point of) paying his debts' Le sala a attender deberea esser equipate de un machina a scriber 'The waiting room ought to be equipped with a typewriter' Comencia tu studios per arder omne libros 'Begin your studies by burning all books' Illa es capace de perder le traino 'She is capable of missing the train' Nos pensa ir al theatro 'We are thinking of going to the theater' On the lack of an equivalent of the English 'of' in the last example, see § 87 below. § 84. Detached from the sentence the infinitive is not preceded by a preposition corresponding to the English 'to' as in 'to go,' etc. -- This 'to' is a peculiarly English phenomenon and must not be confused with the use of 'to' before an infinitive within a complete sentence. Here 'to' has a grammatical function and is required or omitted in accordance with specific grammatical rules which make us say 'I need to eat' with 'to' and 'I need not eat' without 'to.'--Within a sentence the equivalent of English 'to' before the infinitive is de or a or pro or nothing as differentiated below. § 85. The preposition a is used when the infinitive seems to represent a goal either after an adjective or a verbal construction. Nos aspira a realisar nostre ideales 'We strive to realize our ideals' Iste porta non es facile a aperir 'This door is not easy to open'
§ 86. The preposition pro is used when
the infinitive seems to represent a
purpose as in an English construction
with 'in order to.'
Ille venira pro reparar le fenestra 'He came (in order) to repair the window' Io mangia pro viver, sed quando nos ha globos de patata io vive pro mangiar 'I eat to live but when we have potato dumplings I live to eat'
§ 87. A preposition need not be used
when the infinitive can be construed as
a noun or as occupying the place of a
noun.
(a) In an example like, 'It is difficult to walk in the sand,' the infinitive is the logical subject and hence the equivalent of a noun; the statement is identical with 'Walking in the sand is difficult.' Here the infinitive appears without a preceding preposition: Il es difficile vader in le arena or Vader in le arena es difficile. See § 83 above.
(b) Whenever a
transitive verb is followed by a
dependent infinitive as in 'I plan to go
to the country,' the idea it represents
can be expressed more or less smoothly
by a noun, as in 'I plan a trip to the
country'
Io plana vader al campania. Hence after a transitive verb the dependent infinitive is not introduced by a preposition. In van io ha tentate convincer le 'In vain have I tried to convince him'
Il es facile rider con le ridentes e
difficile plorar con le plorantes
'It is easy to laugh with the laughing
and hard to weep with the weeping'
Il es un grande privilegio esser inter vos iste vespere 'It is a great privilege to be with you tonight' Nos intende ameliorar nostre methodos de agricultura 'We intend to improve our agricultural methods' Ille diceva que su soror sperava revider nos 'He said that his sister hoped to see us again' Illa time esser sol con le patiente 'She is afraid of being alone with the patient' § 88. A preposition before the infinitive cannot be used (a) after constructions with voler, poter, deber, soler and (b) after constructions with lassar, facer, also vider, audir and other verbs of sense perception when they have an object which is at the same time the subject of the following infinitive, as in 'I see him come.' Io volerea dormir sed illa debe dansar 'I would (want to) sleep but she must dance' Illa crede que illa pote cantar 'She thinks that she can sing' Le matre faceva le doctor venir or Le matre faceva venir le doctor 'The mother had (made) the doctor come' Io senti le nausea montar 'I feel the nausea rise' Io audi le venir or Io le audi venir 'I hear him come (coming)'
Note: In the statement, Io face le
studente acceptar mi consilio 'I make
the student accept my advice,' the nouns
can naturally be replaced by pronouns to
yield the simpler form,
Io le face acceptar lo 'I make him accept it.'
Logically the latter statement ought to be a basis for the two assertions, 'I make him accept' (i.e., I force him to accept) and 'I make accept it' (i.e., I force people in general to accept it). Actually the forms Io le face acceptar and Io face acceptar lo are correct, though the second would not appear in English as 'I make accept it' but as 'I have it accepted' or 'I cause it to be accepted.' Similar examples are: Illa me faceva vender le can 'She made me sell the dog' Illa faceva vender le can 'She had the dog sold' Io videva le infantes occider le ave 'I saw the children kill the bird' Io les videva occider lo 'I saw them kill it' Io videva occider lo 'I saw it being killed' § 89. The neutral preposition used with the infinitive is de. Io es felice de revider vos 'I am happy to see you again' Le necessitate de ganiar plus es clar 'The need to earn more is clear' Ille se effortia de mitter le motor in motion 'He tries hard to start the motor' § 90. Note: English constructions of the type, 'I want him to come' can only be rendered as 'I want that he come.' Io vole que ille veni.
English constructions such as 'I had the
pleasure of seeing her' are always
rendered as 'I had the pleasure to see
her': § 91. THE INFINITIVE IS USED to express general orders, prohibitions, etc. Non fumar! 'Don't smoke!, No smoking!' Non sputar super le solo! 'Don't spit on the floor!' Tener se al dextra! 'Keep to the right!' § 92. The infinitive is used after interrogative particles in accordance with the English model, 'I don't know what to do.' Io non sape que facer. Il es difficile decider se ubi vader 'It is difficult to decide where to go' Que creder nunc? 'What are we to believe now?' Nos non sapeva qual pisce prender primo 'We did not know what fish to catch first'
------------------ § 93. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE ends in -nte which is added to the infinitive less its final -r, with the proviso that a preceding -i- changes to -ie-. crear: creante 'to create: creating' vider: vidente 'to see: seeing' audir: audiente 'to hear: hearing' Note: The following present participles have -iente as the preferred form although the corresponding infinitives end in -er: capiente and all compounds of -cipiente (incipiente, etc.), faciente and all compounds in -ficiente (deficiente, etc.), all compounds of -jiciente (injiciente, etc.), sapiente, and all compounds of -spiciente (inspiciente, etc.).- Since the suffix -antia and its variants -entia, -ientia (see § 152) are derived from present-participle forms, their connection with verbs runs parallel to the formation of present participles. Every verb with a present participle in -iente yields a noun in -ientia, etc. § 94. The present participle is an adjective and as such shares all the characteristics of other adjectives. See §§ 32-39, 41 above and § 152 below. Note: The present participle has no function in the verbal paradigm, for there is no crystallized progressive corresponding to English 'I am buying, hoping, etc.' But phrases like 'A dead dog cannot be living' may of course be translated literally in so far as they make sense. Un can morte non pote esser vivente Le climate de Alaska va deveniente plus benigne 'The climate of Alaska keeps (or goes on or is) getting milder' Minnehaha significa "aqua ridente" 'Minnehaha means "laughing water" ' Transversante le oceano, io habeva un placente aventura 'Crossing the ocean I had a pleasant (pleasing) adventure' Duo passantes videva le accidente 'Two passers-by (passing ones) saw the accident' Essente surveliate per le policia, ille non osava mover se 'Being watched by the police, he did not dare to move'
--------------- § 95. The PAST PARTICIPLE ends in -te which is added to the infinitive less its final -r, with the proviso that a preceding -e- changes to -i-. crear: create 'to create: created' vider: vidite 'to see: seen' audir: audite 'to hear: heard' Note: Past participles are stressed regularly on the vowel before the last consonant. On a collateral stress system, see footnote to § 148 below. § 96. As in English the past participle is used in past compound tenses and in the passive. See §§ 105-106, 112-113 below. It is also an adjective and as such shares all the characteristics of other adjectives. Finally it occurs as an absolute participle. Le pluvia impellite per le vento entra trans le fenestra rumpite 'The rain driven by the wind comes in through the broken window' Io es fatigate 'I am tired (fatigued)' Le inviata de Valhalla clama le animas del occiditos 'The envoy of Valhalla calls the souls of the slain' Impellite per le vento, le pluvia entra in le fenestra § 97 Note: There are considerable numbers of verbal adjectives of the type fisse 'split,' docte 'learned,' benedicte 'blessed,' etc. belonging to the verbs finder, docer, benedicter, etc. Their meaning is identical with that of the normal past participles findite, docite, benedicite, etc. in adjectival use. Verbal adjectives of this type may be made to serve as past participles in all functions inclusive of that of forming past compound tenses. The rule covering this point is as follows: Every verb which has a special contracted ( = irregular) deriving stem listed in the Dictionary can form a collateral past participle by adding the ending -e to that contracted stem. See also § 152, last unit. Ille es absorbite in su labor or Ille es absorpte in su labor 'He is absorbed in his work' Ille ha assumite le nomine de su femina or Ille ha assumpte le nomine de su femina 'He has assumed the name of his wife' In le campania on non se senti subjicite al haste del vita moderne or In le campania on non se senti subjecte al haste del vita moderne 'In the country one does not feel subjected to the hurry of modern life' § 98. The TENSE FORMS have no personal inflection and require generally an expressed subject.
------------- § 99. The PRESENT TENSE is formed from the infinitive by dropping the final -r. It is stressed in accordance with the rules given in § 10.
io, tu, etc. crea, vide, audi
'I, you, etc. create, see, listen (hear)'
§ 100. The present tense functions naturally as the "UNIVERSAL PRESENT." It extends more freely into the future than is possible in English, especially when the construction contains an unambiguous adverb of time. Deo ama le homines 'God loves men' Io non sape lo que es le nomine de iste animal 'I don't know what the name of this animal is' Iste vespere io recipe mi canetto 'Tonight I am going to get my puppy' § 101. The verbs haber 'to have', esser 'to be', and vader 'to go' have a simplified present-tense form which consists of the fist syllable of the infinitive: ha, es, va. Proque io ha un terribile mal de capite il es necessari que io va al doctor 'Because I have a terrible headache it is necessary that I go to the doctor' In the case of esser, a distinct optional plural form son is available.
---------- § 102. The PAST TENSE is formed from the infinitive by dropping the final -r and adding the tense ending -va. io, tu, etc. creava, videva, audiva 'I, you, etc. created, saw, heard (listened)' § 103. The functions of the past tense are the same as in English. Note especially its use in constructions of the type, 'If he was (were) here, I might feel better.' Heri nos voleva vider le Mercator de Venetia sed nos non poteva obtener billetes e tunc nos videva le Princessa del Czardas. Si vos cognosceva iste operetta vos comprenderea que io prefere Kalman a Shakespeare. 'Yesterday we wanted to see the Merchant of Venice but we couldn't get tickets and so we saw the Czardas Princess. If you knew this operetta you would understand that I prefer Kalman to Shakespeare.' § 104. For esser 'to be' an optional irregular past era 'was, were' is available.
§ 105. The COMPOUND TENSES OF THE PAST
(perfect and pluperfect) are formed as
in English by means of the present and
past of an auxiliary verb (haber 'to
have) and the past participle.
io, tu, etc. ha create, vidite, audite
'I, you, etc. have created, seen, heard'
io, tu, etc. habeva create, vidite,
audite
'I, you, etc. had created, seen, heard
(listened)
§ 106. The functions of the past compound tenses cover all functions of the corresponding English forms. The perfect is not as restricted as in English and is synonymous with the simple past. Su Majestate ha perdite su capite 'His Majesty has lost his head' Ludovico Dece-Sex ha perdite su capite 'Louis XVI lost his head'
------ § 107. The FUTURE is formed from the infinitive by adding the stressed ending -a, not distinguished by an accent mark. io, tu, etc. creara, videra, audira 'I, you, etc. will create, see, hear (listen)'
----------- The CONDITIONAL is formed from the infinitive by adding the ending -ea with stress on the -e-, not distinguished by an accent mark.
io, tu, etc. crearea, viderea, audirea
'I, you, etc. would create, see, hear
(listen)'
§ 108. The functions of the future and conditional do not differ from English usage. Si ille attende assatis longe, ille habera un barba 'If he waits long enough, he will have a beard' Si illa habeva quatro rotas, illa esserea un omnibus. 'If she had four wheels, she would be an omnibus' Si io esseva un avetto, io volarea a te. 'If I were a little bird, I would fly to you' Note: Both future and conditional have collateral compound forms consisting of the infinitive with the auxiliaries va and velle respectively. Si ille attende assatis longe, ille va haber un barba Si illa habeva quatro rotas, illa velle esser un omnibus Si io esseva un avetto, io velle volar a te § 109. More complex verbal constructions -- whether one wishes to call them tenses or not -- can freely be formed by means of the material discussed above. Nos haberea potite venir 'We would have been able to come' Ille habera finite scriber 'He will have finished writing'
---------- § 110. The IMPERATIVE is identical with the present but as a rule it uses no pronouns. Ama tu vicino como te mesme! 'Love thy neighbor as thyself!' Aperi le porta! 'Open the door!' Reguarda hic! 'Look here!' As in English the pronoun occurs occasionally with the imperative. Face tu lo que io commanda 'Do you what I order (you to do)' § 111. The functions of the imperative can of course be taken over by an emphatic present tense. Tu veni hic immediatemente! 'You come here right away!' For the use of the infinitive with imperative value, see § 91 above. The elliptic construction with que... '(I wish) that...' is possible with all persons and serves in particular to express the imperative of the first person plural.
Que ille veni!
'Let him come!, May he come!' The dictionary word sia 'be (it)' may be construed as a conjunction or as an exceptional subjunctive of esser. Taken in the latter sense, it enters into constructions of imperative value. Io ama lilios del valles, sia in le campo, sia in un vaso 'I love lilies of the valley, be it in the open, be it in a vase' Le juvene maritos sia felice! '(May) The young couple be happy!' Sia gentil e face me ille favor 'Be nice and do me that favor'
------- § 112. The PASSIVE auxiliary is esser 'to be.' The tense forms of this auxiliary are fully covered by the foregoing discussion of the verbal conjugation. The following summary of them may be found convenient.
io etc. es io essera or io va
esser
'I am,' etc. 'I will be'
io esseva or io era io esserea or io
velle esser
'I was' 'I would be'
io ha essite io habera essite or
io va haber essite
'I have been' 'I will have been'
io habeva essite io haberea essite
or io velle haber
essite
'I had been' 'I would have been'
|
§115 TABULA DE CONJUGATION Infinitivo
Imperativocre-ar
crea!vid-er
vide!aud-ir
audi!participio
presente
perfecte
cre-ante
cre-ate
vid-ente
vid-ite
aud-iente
aud-iteACTIVE Simple
presente
passato
futuro
conditional
Perfecte
presente
passato
futuro
conditional
crea
creava
creara
crearea
ha create
habeva create
habera create
haberea create
vide
videva
videra
viderea
ha vidite
habeva vidite
habera vidite
haberea vidite
audi
audiva
audira
audirea
ha audite
habeva audite
habera audite
haberea auditePASSIVE Simple
presente
passato
futuro
conditional
Perfecte
presente
passato
futuro
conditional
es create
esseva create
essera create
esserea create
ha essite create
habeva essite create
habera essite create
haberea essite create
es vidite
esseva vidite
essera vidite
esserea vidite
ha essite vidite
habeva essite vidite
habera essite vidite
haberea essite vidite
es audite
esseva audite
essera audite
esserea audite
ha essite audite
habeva essite audite
habera essite audite
haberea essite audite
100 cento
1.000 mille
1.000.000 = (10^6) million 10^9 milliardo
10^12 = (10^6)^2 billion 10^15 billiardo
10^18 = (10^6)^3 trillion 10^21 trilliardo
10^24 = (10^6)^4 quatrillion 10^27 quatrilliardo
10^30 = (10^6)^5 quintillion 10^33 quintilliardo
100 cento
1,000 mille
1,000,000 million
1,000,000,000 milliardo
1,000,000,000,000 billion
1,000,000,000,000,000 billiardo
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 trillion
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 trilliardo
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 quatrillion
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 quatrilliardo
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 quintillion
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 quintilliardo
|
Nota: Post (10^6)^5, le plus alte potentias de
un million es formate regularmente per le
suffixo -illion addite al radice del
multiplicativo correspondente al exponente.
Pro le formas del multiplicativos, vide
§127 infra. Le numeral que representa un
mille multiplicate per qualcunque potentia
de un million es formate per reimplaciar le
-ion final per le suffixo -iardo.
Omne altere cardinales es formate per addition
o multiplication.
§119 Le principio de addition es usate pro
combinar deces con unes; centos con deces e
unes; milles con centos, deces, e unes;
milliones con milles, centos, deces, e unes,
etc. Le numerales a adder es juxtaponite; le
plus grande(s) precede.
Exemplo:
1.120 mille cento vinti.
Sub un cento, le elementos juxtaponite es
connectite per un tracto de union.
Exemplos:
72 septanta-duo;
11 dece-un;
12 dece-duo.
Le uso de e inter le elementos que es a adder
es sempre possibile e sempre dispensabile. In
summas sub un cento, illo reimplacia le
tracto de union.
Exemplos:
1.120 mille cento e vinti;
72 septanta e duo.
§120 Le principio de multiplication es usate
pro exprimer multiplos de cento, mille, e
omne le plus alte potentias de mille, como
million, milliardo, etc.
Le multiplicator es un adjectivo que sempre
precede le multiplicando. Le multiplicando es
un substantivo que prende un desinentia
plural normal.
Exemplos:
3.000.000 tres milliones;
200 duo centos.
Nota: Ante cento e mille le multiplicator
'un' pote esser omittite. Omne le plus alte
potentias del 1.000 - como million, milliardo,
billion, etc. - introduce le objecto que illos
conta per le preposition de.
Exemplo:
$10^12 un billion (1 000 000 000 000) de
dollares.
§121 Il ha nulle differentia in forma inter
numerales cardinal que es usate como
adjectivos e pronomines excepte pro 'un',
cuje formas pronominal coincide con illos del
articulo indefinite (vide §21 supra).
§122 Exemplos de numerales cardinal:
13 dece-tres
8.347 octo milles tres centos
quaranta-septe
10.987.654.321 dece milliardos novem
centos octanta-septe
milliones sex centos
cinquanta-quatro milles
tres centos vinti-un
Le mille-pedes ha perdite quatro centos
novanta-novem pedes; illo totevia ha cinque
centos un.
In bon tempores ille emplea plus que cento
filanderas in su filanda; nunc ille ha
travalio pro exactemente quaranta-una.
§123 DECIMALES es scribite e legite con un
comma in loco de un puncto:
34,798 trenta-quatro comma septe novem octo
Nota : Le usage anglese de separar numerales
longe per comma (p.ex., 1,234,567,890)
confligerea con le comma decimal. In su loco
Interlingua usa le puncto;
p.ex. 1.234.567.890
§124 Exemplos de como leger regulas
arithmetic:
14 + 3,4 = 17,4 dece-quatro plus tres comma
quatro es dece-septe comma
quatro
20 - 102 = -82 vinti minus cento duo es minus
octanta duo
20 x 17 = 340 vinti vices dece-septe es tres
centos quaranta
100/3 = 33,3333 cento dividite per tres es
trenta-tres comma tres tres
tres tres
---------
Ordinales
---------
§125 Le NUMERALES ORDINAL es adjectivos que
ha omne le characteristicas de altere
adjectivos in respecto al uso pronominal e
substantivate. Le ordinales basic (e lor
formas numeric) es:
prime 1me
secunde 2nde
tertie 3tie
quarte 4te
quinte 5te
sexte 6te
septime 7me
octave 8ve
none 9ne
decime 10me
ultime
Omne altere ordinales simple es derivate del
cardinales correspondente per le suffixo
-esime:
vintesime 20me
trentesime 30me
centesime 100me
millesime 1.000me
millionesime 1.000.000me
milliardesime 1.000.000.000me
In numerales composite solmente le ultime
elemento porta le forma de un ordinal:
dece-prime 11me
cento secunde 102nde
novanta-none 99ne
tres centesime 300me
le duo cento cinquantesime anniversario ...
Isto es mi tertie (presumibilemente: cocktail).
In numerales arabic le ordinales son presentate
sequentemente:
1me 2nde 3tie 4te 5te 6te 7me
8ve 9ne 10me 20me 100me
§126 Le adjectivo FRACTIONAL anglese
{half} es medie, le substantivo
correspondente medietate. Jungite al
substantivo sequente, medie- ha le valor
de {mid-} in anglese.
un medie hora ...
duo medie horas ...
le duo medietates ...
duo e medie horas ...
duo horas e medie ...
le medietate del membros ...
le medie membros (i.e. membros con
derectos limitate)
mediedie ...
medienocte ...
Omne altere numerales fractional es formate
secundo le patronos sequente:
Expressiones como {a fourth part}, {two fifth
parts}, {one sixth part}, etc. es exprimite
como in anglese per ordinales simple: un
quarte parte, duo quinte partes, un sexte
parte, etc. In le plus grande numero de casos,
expressiones fractional differe del exemplos
date per le absentia de parte. In su loco, le
ordinales se cambia a substantivos. Nota que
le modello {three quarter mile} debe sempre
esser rendite como {three fourths of a mile:
tres quartos de un millia.}
Tres quartos plus tres octavos es un e un
octavo.
Un medie hora e un quarto de hora es tres
quartos de hora.
In numeros mixte que es usate como adjectivos
numeral, le fraction pote sequer le
substantivo.
un pan e tres quartos ...
duo milliones e tres quintos de
prisioneros ...
---------------
Multiplicativos
---------------
§127 Le adjectivos numeral
MULTIPLICATIVE es:
simple o simplice
duple o duplice
triple o triplice
quadruple
quintuple
sextuple
septuple
octuple
nonuple
decuple
centuple
§128 COMPOSITOS MULTIPLICATIVE
({half-yearly}, {threedecker}, etc.) pote
esser formate liberemente secundo le modellos
sequente in le quales le formas del numerales
functiona como prefixos in compositos. Nota
que compositos de iste categoria pote
involver derivation simultanee (secundo le
modello anglese {three-cornered} que es non
simplemente un composito de {three} e
{cornered}, sed un derivato composite de
{three} e {corner} con le suffixo {-ed}).
Vide etiam §§155, 163-164 infra. Le
methodos de composition illustrate pote esser
applicate equalmente e indifferentemente -
intra le limites de necessitate practic pro
nove formationes - a substantivos,
adjectivos, e verbos.
Un:
uni- =
un.
uni- + trinitate ->
unitrinitate;
uni- + corno + -e (adj) ->
unicorne;
uni- + latere + -al ->
unilateral;
nove formationes:
uni- + monte –> unimonte: monte singule;
uni- + anulo + -ate –> unianulate;
Nota: Le forma mono-, ante vocales mon-,
es usate como un synonymo de
unispecialmente in terminos technic.
Un e un medie:
sesqui- = un e un medie.
sesqui- + plano –> sesquiplano: biplano
con un curte subplano;
sesqui- + pede + -al –> sesquipedal;
nove formationes:
sesqui- + torno –> sesquitorno:
un-e-un-medie torno;
sesqui- + uncia + -al –> sesquiuncial:
de un uncia e medie (in longor);
Duo:
|
Note: From 1,000,000^5 on, the higher powers of
a million are formed regularly by means of the
suffix -illion added to the stem of the
multiplicative corresponding to the exponent.
For the forms of the multiplicatives, see
below § 127. The numeral representing a
thousand times any power of one million is
formed by replacing the final -ion by the
suffix -iardo.
All other cardinals are formed by addition or
multiplication.
§ 119. The principle of addition is used to
combine tens with ones; hundreds with tens
and ones; thousands with hundreds, tens, and
ones; millions with thousands, hundreds, tens,
and ones, etc. The items to be added are
juxtaposed, the bigger one preceding.
Example:
1,120 mille cento vinti.
Below a hundred the juxtaposed items are
connected by a hyphen.
Examples:
72 septanta-duo;
11 dece-un;
12 dece-duo.
The use of e 'and' between the items to be
added is always possible and always
dispensable. In sums below a hundred it
replaces the hyphen.
Examples:
1,120 mille cento e vinti;
72 septanta e duo.
§ 120. The principle of multiplication is
used to express multiples of cento, mille,
and all higher powers of mille, as million,
milliardo, etc.
The multiplier is an adjective which always
precedes the multiplicand. The multiplicand
is a noun which takes a normal plural ending.
Examples:
3,000,000 tres milliones;
200 duo centos.
Note: Before cento and mille the multiplier
un may be omitted. All the higher powers of
1,000 -- as million, milliardo, billion,
etc. -- introduce the object they count by
the preposition de.
Example:
$10^12
un billion (1 000 000 000 000) de dollares.
§ 121. There is no difference in form between
cardinal numerals used as adjectives and
pronouns except for un 'one,' whose pronominal
forms coincide with those of the indefinite
article (see § 21 above).
§ 122. Examples of cardinal numerals:
13 dece-tres
8,347 octo milles tres centos
quaranta-septe
10,987,654,321 dece milliardos nove centos
octanta-septe milliones sex
centos cinquanta-quatro milles
tres centos vinti-un
Le mille-pedes ha perdite quatro centos
novanta-nove pedes; illo totevia ha cinque
centos un
'The millepede has lost four hundred and
ninety-nine feet; it still has five hundred
and one.'
In bon tempores ille emplea plus que cento
filanderas in su filanda; nunc ille ha
travalio pro exactemente quaranta-una
'In good times he employs more than a hundred
girls in his spinning mill; now he has work
for exactly forty-one.'
§ 123. DECIMALS are written and read with a
comma instead of a period:
34.798 (thirty-four point seven nine eight)
34,798 (trenta-quatro comma septe nove octo).
Note: The English custom of setting off long
numbers by a comma (e.g., 1,234,567,890)
would conflict with the decimal comma. In its
stead the Interlingua uses a period
(e.g. 1.234.567.890).
§ 124. Model readings of arithmetical rules:
14 + 3,4 = 17,4 (dece-quatro plus tres comma
quatro es dece-septe comma
quarto)
20 − 102 = −82 (vinti minus cento duo es minus
octanta duo)
20 X 17 = 340
(vinti vices dece-septe es tres centos
quaranta)
100 ÷ 3 = 33,3333
(cento dividite per tres es trenta-tres
comma tres tres tres tres)
----------------
Ordinal numerals
----------------
§ 125. The ORDINAL NUMERALS are adjectives
sharing all characteristics of other
adjectives in regard to pronominal and
substantivized use. The basic ordinals are:
1st prime
2nd secunde
3rd tertie
4th quarte
5th quinte
6th sexte
7th septime
8th octave
9th none
10th decime
last ultime
All other simple ordinals are derived from
the corresponding cardinals by the suffix
-esime:
20th vintesime
30th trentesime
100th centesime
1,000th millesime
1,000,000th millionesime
1,000,000,000th milliardesime
In compound numerals only the last element is
given the form of an ordinal:
11th dece-prime 102nd cento secunde
99th novanta-none 300th tres centesime
'The two hundred fiftieth anniversary'
le duo cento cinquantesime anniversario
'This is my third (presumably: cocktail)'
Isto es mi tertie
In Arabic numerals the ordinals are expressed
as follows:
1me 2nde 3tie 4te 5te 6te 7me
8ve 9ne 10me 20me 100me
§ 126. The FRACTIONAL adjective 'half' is
medie, the corresponding noun medietate.
Joined to the following noun, medie- has the
value of English
'mid-.'
un medie hora
'half an hour (a half hour)'
duo medie horas
'two half hours';
le duo medietates
'the two halves'
duo e medie horas, duo horas e medie
two and a half hours, two hours and a half
le medietate del membros
'half the members'
le medie membros
'the half members (opposed to 'full members')'
mediedie
'midday';
medienocte
'midnight'
All other fractional numerals are formed after
the following patterns:
Phrases like 'a fourth part, two fifth parts,
one sixth part, etc.' are expressed as in
English by means of simple ordinals: un
quarte parte, duo quinte partes, un sexte
parte, etc. In most cases fractions are
expressed in phrases differing from the
samples given by the absence of 'part' parte.
Instead the ordinals are made into nouns.
Note that the model 'three quarter mile' must
always be rendered as 'three fourths of a
mile.'
Tres quartos plus tres octavos es un e un
octavo 'Three fourths and three eighths is
one and one eighth'
Un medie hora e un quarto de hora es tres
quartos de hora
'Half an hour and a quarter hour is three
quarter hours'
In mixed numbers which are used as numeral
adjectives, the fraction follow the noun.
un pan e tres quartos
'one and three quarter loaves of bread'
duo milliones e tres quintos de prisioneros
'two and three fifths million prisoners'
--------------
Multiplicative
--------------
§ 127. The MULTIPLICATIVE numeral adjectives
are:
simple
or simplice 'simple'
duple or duplice 'double'
triple or triplice 'triple'
quadruple 'quadruple'
quintuple 'quintuple'
sextuple 'sixfold'
septuple 'sevenfold'
octuple 'eightfold'
nonuple 'ninefold'
decuple 'tenfold'
centuple 'hundredfold'
§ 128. MULTIPLICATIVE COMPOUNDS
('half-yearly,' 'threedecker,' etc.) can be
formed freely after the following models in
which the compounding forms of the numerals
function as prefixes. Note that compounds of
this category may involve simultaneous
derivation (after the model of English
'three-cornered' which is not simply a
compound of 'three' and 'cornered' but a
compounded derivative of 'three' and 'corner'
with the suffix '-ed'). Cf. also §§ 155,
163-164 below. The compounding methods
illustrated may be applied equally and
indifferently -- within the limits of
practical needs for new formations -- to
nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
One:
uni- plus trinitate yields unitrinitate
'unitrinity' plus como 'horn' plus adj.
ending yields unicorne 'one-horned' plus
latere 'side' plus -at yields unilateral
New formations:
uni- plus monte 'mountain' yields unimonte
'single mountain' plus anulo 'ring' plus -ate
yields unianulate 'one-ring'
Note: The form mono-, before vowels mon-, is
used as a synonym of uni- especially in
technical terms.
One and one half:
sesqui- plus plano yields sesquiplano
'biplane with short underplane' plus pede
'foot' plus -al yields sesquipedal
'sesquipedalian'
New formations:
sesqui- plus torno 'turn' yields sesquitorno
'one-and-a-half turn' plus uncia 'inch' plus
-al yields sesquiuncial 'one and a half
inches (in length)'
Two:
bi- plus cyclo yields bicyclo 'bicycle'
plus metallo plus -ismo yields bimetallismo
'bimetallism' plus furcar yields bifurcar 'to
bifurcate' plus lingua 'language' plus adj.
ending yields bilingue 'bilingual'
New formations:
bi- plus vita plus -ate yields bivitate
'two-lived, having two lives' plus digito
'finger' plus adj. ending yields bidigite
'two-fingered' plus franger 'to break' yields
bifranger 'to break twice'
Note: The form di- is used as a synonym of bi-
especially in technical terms.
Half:
semi- plus deo 'god' yields semideo 'half-god'
plus official yields semiofficial
plus somno 'sleep' plus adj. ending yields
semisomne 'half asleep'
New formations:
semi- plus professor yields semiprofessor plus
occider 'to kill' yields semioccider 'to half
kill'
plus interessante 'interesting' yields
semiinteressante 'fifty-fifty interesting'
Note: The form hemi- is used as a rarer
synonym of semi- especially in technical terms.
Three:
tri- plus folio 'leaf' yields trifolio
'trefoil, clover' plus secar 'to cut' yields
trisecar 'to trisect' plus dimension plus -al
yields tridimensional 'three-dimensional' plus
angulo plus adj. ending yields triangule
'three-cornered'
Four:
quadri- plus syllabo plus adj. ending yields
quadrisyllabe 'four-syllabic' plus anno 'year'
plus -al yields quadriennal 'four-yearly'
Note: The form tetra-, before vowels tetr- is
used as a preferred synonym of quadri-
especially in technical terms.
Five, six, seven, eight, twelve:
penta- plus metro yields pentametro
'pentameter' hexa- plus chordo yields
hexachordo 'hexachord' hepta- plus -archia
yields heptarchia 'rule by seven' octa- plus
metro yields octametro 'octameter' dodeca-
plus syllabo plus adj. ending yields
dodecasyllabe 'twelve-syllabled'
Note: The forms penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa-,
and dodeca- are used like mono-, di-, and
tetra-, that is, especially in technical terms
and with the special characteristic that they
lose their final -a before a vowel.
Ten, hundred, thousand:
Multiplicative compounds involving 10, 100,
and 1000 are important primarily by virtue of
their use as expressions of units of
measurement in the metric system and its
technological extensions. Multiplication by
10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 is expressed by
deca-, hecto-, kilo-, and myria-
respectively. The parallel forms for
multiplication by 1/10, 1/100, and 1/1000
are deci-, centi-, and milli-. The finals
-a- and -o- in deca-, myria-, and hecto- are
dropped before an initial vowel of the
second compounding element. New analogical
formations are possible whenever required
for technological and related needs. The
form myria- can be used in general
(nontechnical) formations with the meaning
'a great many.' A traditional illustration
is:
litro 'liter,' decalitro 'ten liters,'
decilitro 'one tenth of a liter,' hectolitro
'a hundred liters,' centilitro 'one
hundredth of a liter,' kilolitro 'a thousand
liters,' millilitro 'one thousandth of a
liter,' myrialitro 'ten thousand liters.'
A possible analogical formation is unitate
'unit,' deciunitate 'ten units,'deciunitate
'one tenth of a unit,' hectunitate 'one
hundred units,' centiunitate 'one hundredth
of a unit,' kilounitate 'one thousand
units,' milliunitate 'one thousandth of a
unit,' myriunitate 'ten thousand units.'
Many:
multi- plus millions + -ario yields multimillionario
multi- plus polo 'pole' plus -ar yields multipolar
multi- plus lobo 'lobe' plus adj. ending yields
multilobe 'multilobed'
New formations:
multi- plus cyclo yields multicyclo 'cycle
with more than three wheels'
multi- plus linea 'line' plus -ate yields
multilineate 'many-lined'
Note: The form poly- is used as a synonym of
multi- especially in technical terms. To
express plurality in the sense of
multiplication by several rather than by
many, the form pluri- is preferred.
§ 129. The COLLECTIVE NUMERALS are formed
after the model of dozena 'dozen' with the
suffix -ena attached to the simple cardinals
Illes arrivava in centenas
'They arrived in groups of a hundred'
Illos se vende in decenas
'They are sold in batches of ten'
Note: A complete set of collectives would
have no practical importance but is
theoretically possible. If wanted, the first
two would have to be formed irregularly as
bina 'a group of two' and trina 'a group of
three.'
§ 130. ADVERBIAL NUMERALS are derived from
the ordinals either by the normal adverbial
suffix -mente or by the ending -o which
takes the place of the final -e of
adjectives: tertio 'thirdly'; ultimo
'lastly'; etc.
Post toto, ille es primemente mi fratre e
secundemente mi adversario politic
'After all, he is first my brother and
secondly my political opponent'
Ecce tres possibilitates:
Primo, mi opinion es absurde;
secundo, mi opinion es theoricamente
correcte sed impractic;
e tertio, mi opinion es tanto correcte como
practic.
'There are three possibilities:
First, my view is absurd;
second, my view is theoretically correct but
impractical;
and third, my view is a s correct as
practical'
Expressed in Arabic numerals the numeral
adverbs differ from ordinals in that they
end in -o: 1mo, 2ndo, 3tio, etc. See § 125
above.
§ 131. The FUNCTIONS OF NUMERALS differ
little from English usage. As in English one
may for instance say, capitulo tres 'chapter
three' or le tertie capitulo 'the third
chapter.' However, in the numbering of
sovereigns, contrary to English usage,
appositional cardinals are used except in
the case of the first where a following
substantivized ordinal without article is
used.
Napoleon III (Napoleon Tres)
'Napoleon the Third'
Henrico LXVII de Reuss (Henrico
Sexanta-Septe)
'Henry the Sixty-Seventh of Reuss'
Frederico I (Frederico Primo)
'Frederic the First'
Catharina I (Catharina Prima)
'Catherine the First'
§ 132. In DATES the day of the month is
indicated by a cardinal. For the first day a
substantivized ordinal is permissible.
le 1 de januario (le un de januario)
'the first of January'
le 12 de novembre (le dece-duo de novembre)
'the twelfth of November'
Heri esseva le vinti-octo de februario e hodie
es le vinti-nove. – No, hodie es le
prime de martio.
'Yesterday was the twenty-eighth of February
and today is the twenty-ninth. – No, today
is the first of March.'
§ 133. The TIME OF DAY is stated after the
following models:
il es un (hora); a un (hora)
'it is one (o'clock); at one (o'clock)'
il es tres (horas); a tres (horas)
'it is three (o'clock); at three (o'clock)'
dece (horas) e quarte
'a quarter past ten (o'clock)'
dece (horas) minus quarte
'a quarter of ten (o'clock)'
dece (horas) e medie
'half past ten (o'clock)'
dece (horas) e vinti (minutas)
'twenty (minutes) past ten (o'clock)'
dece (horas) minus vinti (minutas)
'twenty (minutes) of ten (o'clock)'
|
|
==================== PARTICULAS GRAMMATIC ==================== §134 Nota: Le spheras de grammatica e vocabulario imbrica proque ambes se preoccupa de ille "parve parolas" que es necessari pro exprimer le relation inter le vocabulos o expressiones que constitue un enunciation complete. Iste parolas, hic pro convenientia nominate "particulas grammatic," ha functiones grammatic. Assi illos es classificate generalmente non in un proprie categoria, sed como prepositiones, conjunctiones, pronomines, adverbios, e similes. Ab le puncto de vista de Interlingua "particulas grammatic," totevia, forma un gruppo de significantia peculiar proque lor extension international comparate con le grande majoritate de vocabulos de Interlingua es assatis restricte. Pro le majoritate del usatores de Interlingua le "particulas grammatic" constitue le unic obstaculo seriose in apprender le lingua.
Le extension restricte de
internationalitate del "particulas
grammatic" es debite al facto que lor
equivalentes in le varie linguas
national es si intimemente associate con
cosas basic de structura grammatic que
illos non pare haber invadite le dominio
de altere linguas a grande mesura. Un
parola francese como {cigarette} ha
cambiate al anglese sin multe
difficultate; le parola francese {sans}
como usate in le anglese retene su sapor
estranier post multe seculos.
Pro illustrar ulteriormente: Le parlator de un altere lingua - que nos dice un francese - pote trovar difficile comprender le enunciation anglese simple: --- Our guests started coming in right after we got back from town. Ille es adjutate per le version: --- Our visitors began to arrive right after we returned from town. E como un ultime recurso, il ha in plus le possibilitate que ille pote comprender le version: --- Our visitors commenced to arrive immediately after we returned from the city. Le prime version se compone de parolas specificamente anglese. Le ultime version usa in vice, in tanto que possibile, variantes anglese de parolas international que un francese comprende proque illos occurre in su proprie lingua - in formas un pauco differente, i.e. specificamente francese. Con un grado major o minor de artificio, il es possibile parlar e scriber qualcunque lingua occidental in vocabulos que es quasi integremente variantes national de materia representate in le vocabulario international. Sed il remane in omne casos un corpore substantial de vocabulos que resiste a iste artificio de internationalisar un lingua national. In le exemplo justo usate, iste corpore de recalcitrante vocabulos es representate con parolas como {our}, {to}, {after}, {we}, {from}, e {the}. Omne istes es particulas grammatic ben que alicunes, como {after} e {we}, combina un function grammatic con un significato clarmente palpabile.
Le Interlingua-English Dictionary (IED)
include un stock multo liberal de
particulas grammatic. In addition al
particulas que es international secundo
le definition functionante del termino
in le Dictionario, il ha numerose formas
que pareva compatibile con le character
general del vocabulario international
assi que lor inclusion poteva servir a
allargar le appello e le utilitate del
Dictionario.
Un lista minimal de particulas grammatic seque. Iste lista se restringe al particulas considerate indispensabile pro le operation del lingua e pote esser supplementate per material additional - specialmente expressiones con functiones grammatic - prendite del IED. Un numero de parolas que le IED lista in duo equalmente correcte formas appare in basso solmente in un alternativa. Isto non implica que le secunde es considerate minus desirabile. Le pares in question es: |
================= GRAMMATICAL WORDS ================= § 134 Note: The spheres of grammar and vocabulary overlap in that both are concerned with those "little words" which are needed to express the relationship between the words or phrases making up a complete statement. These words are grammatical functionaries (here conveniently labeled "grammatical words"), and as such they are generally classed not in a special category of their own but as prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, adverbs, and the like.
From the point of view of Interlingua
"grammatical words" do, however, form a
group of peculiar significance because
their international range compared with
that of the bulk of Interlingua words is
fairly restricted. For most users of
Interlingua the "grammatical words"
constitute the one and only serious
learning obstacle.
The restricted international range of "grammatical words" is due to the fact that their counterparts in the various national languages are so closely associated with matters of basic grammatical structure that they seem to be prevented from invading the realm of other languages on a large scale. A French word like cigarette has turned English without much trouble; the French word sans as used in English retains its foreign flavor after these many centuries. To illustrate further: The speaker of another language - let us say a Frenchman - may find it difficult to understand the simple English statement: "Our guests started coming in right after we got back from town." He may be helped by the version: "Our visitors began to arrive right after we returned from town." And as a last resort there is still the possibility that he may understand the version: "Our visitors commenced to arrive immediately after we returned from the city." The first version is composed of peculiarly English words. The last version uses instead as far as possible the English variants of international words which the Frenchman understands because they occur - in slightly different, that is, peculiarly French forms - in his own language.
With a greater or lesser degree of
artifice it is possible to speak and
write any one of the Western languages
in words which are almost entirely
national variants of material
represented in the international
vocabulary. But there remains in all
cases a substantial body of words which
resist this trick of internationalizing
a national language. In the example just
used this body of recalcitrants is
represented by words like our, to,
after, we, from, and the. All of them
are grammatical words although some of
them, as after and we, combine a
grammatical function with a clearly
palpable meaning.
The Interlingua-English Dictionary (IED) includes a very liberal supply of grammatical words. In addition to those which happen to be international in accordance with the Dictionary's working definition of the term, there are numerous forms which seemed compatible with the general character of the international vocabulary so that their inclusion could serve to broaden the appeal and usefulness of the Dictionary. A minimum list of grammatical words follows. It is restricted to items considered indispensable for the operation of the language and may be enlarged by further material - especially phrases with grammatical functions - drawn from the IED. A number of words which the IED lists in two equally correct forms appears below in one alternate only. This does not imply that the second is considered less desirable. The pairs in question are: |
alicun alcun
aliquando alquando
aliquanto alquanto
alique alco
a pena apena
depost depois
haber haver
hic ci
illac la
illa ella
ille celle
jam ja
pauc poc
secundo secun
semper sempre
si non sinon
subinde sovente
tanto tan
vice vece
|
|
Grammatical Words | |
a: to; at
ab: prep since, from
alias: otherwise, in another manner;
alias; at another time
alibi: elsewhere
ali(c)-: any-, some
alicubi: somewhere; anywhere
alicun: some, any; a few;
alicun cosa: something, anything
alicuno: someone, somebody; anyone,
anybody
aliquando: sometime; at any time
aliquanto: somewhat, to some degree
alique: pron something, anything;
- adv somewhat
alora: then; in that case, consequently
alto: top;
in alto: up; upwards; upstairs; on top
ambe: adj both;
ambes: pron both
an: part interr-;
an ille ha le libro?: has he the
book?;
- conj whether
ancora: adv still, yet;
- interj encore
anque: also, too;
anque io: me too;
non solo...ma anque:
not only...but also
ante: prep before, in front of; earlier
than; above;
- adv before, ahead, earlier, forward;
ante que: before
ante-heri: day before yesterday
a pena: hardly, scarcely
apud: near, with, at, by
assatis: adv enough; rather, fairly,
quite
assi: thus, so;
assi...como: as...as
avante: before, in front, ahead; forward
|
o: or;
o...o: either...or
olim: once, formerly; at a future time,
sometime (in the future)
omne: adj all; each, every; de omne
mano: from every hand;
de omne latere: from every side; in
omne caso: in any case;
omne cosa: everything;
omnes: pron all
on: one
ora: now
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======================= CONSTRUCTION DE PAROLAS ======================= §135 Le THEORIA DE CONSTRUCTION DE PAROLAS se refere al section "Introduction" del Interlingua-English Dictionary, pp. xlv-xlix. [*1*]
Le PRINCIPIO BASIC DE CONSTRUCTION
PRACTIC DE PAROLAS in Interlingua es
analoge. Omne le formationes nove debe
clarmente esser modellate super un
patrono in le vocabulario establite. Un
description del patronos structural le
plus commun in le vocabulario establite
coincide con le prescription que governa
nove formationes. [*1*] Le observationes sequente pote servir pro elucidar le problema. In un discussion de, que nos dice le verbo anglese, il es costumari prender un varietate de formationes sub le titulo de "formas finite special." Assi {interests} per exemplo es nominate le forma del tertie persona tempore presente del verbo {to interest}. Sed etiam le participios {interesting} e {interested} es tractate como formas del verbo ben que illos functiona bastante liberemente como adjectivos independente e pote etiam esser nominate derivatos. Il ha nihil improprie in isto, sed si le adjectivos {interesting} e {interested} es reguardate como formas special de {to interest}, alora il non es facile comprender proque il non pote esser permittite parlar non solmente, que nos dice, de {teaches}, {reteach}, {taught}, {teaching}, sed etiam de {teacher}, {teachings}, {teachery}, {teacherly}, {teacheress}, {school-teaching}, etc. como formas special de {to teach}. Iste maniera satis original de reguardar "derivatos" es extrememente utile in un lingua auxiliar proque illo projecta un lumine multo clar super le principios de construer parolas libere- e autonomemente. Justo como in anglese nemo consulta un dictionario pro assecurar se si ille pote usar le forma {weighs} super le base del infinitivo {to weigh}, assi nemo - si anglese esseva un lingua auxiliar construite - deberea sentir le necessitate de consultar un dictionario ante construer vocabulos del typo {roachy} (de {roach} copiante le modello de {lousy}) o {deedlessness} (de {deedless}). In anglese o in qualcunque altere lingua traditional, le convention e usage pone un limite impediente a iste typo de construction de vocabulos. Non es assi in Interlingua. Hic le limite es ponite per utilitate e claritate. Le prime de iste punctos, illo de "utilitate", a pena ha necessitate de commentario ulterior. Interlingua - como qualcunque lingua traditional - pote construer grande numeros de "formas special" (o derivatos) de que on nunquam ha necessitate. Un {rainer} - pro usar un exemplo anglese - es 'un homine qui pluvia', sed pro le majoritate de gente il es un surprisa que iste parola es de facto listate in dictionarios. Le prerequirimento de claritate duce al formulation que in le lingua auxiliar solo ille elementos formative pote esser tolerate in formationes libere e autonome que generalmente appare in omne partes del lingua con valores clarmente definibile. Si le formation anglese {mountibund} es impossibile, le ration non es que {to mount} e {-ibund} non occurre. Illos occurre. Sed {-ibund} es incapabile de formation active proque su occurrentia in {moribund} e {furibund} non revela un valor facilemente definibile. Formationes libere debe esser si clar que il pare perfectemente logic parlar de illos como "formas special" del parola de base del qual illos es derivate. In le paragraphos sequente le typos structural le plus importante es describite, illustrate, e applicate a nove formationes sub le titulos listate infra.
(I) DERIVATION
(A) AB SUBSTANTIVOS
(a) PRO FORMAR SUBSTANTIVOS
(b) PRO FORMAR ADJECTIVOS
(c) PRO FORMAR VERBOS
(B) AB ADJECTIVOS
(a) PRO FORMAR SUBSTANTIVOS
(b) PRO FORMAR ADJECTIVOS
(c) PRO FORMAR ADVERBIOS
(d) PRO FORMAR VERBOS
(C) AB VERBOS
(II) COMPOSITION
(A) PER MEDIO DE PREFIXOS
(a) GENERAL
(b) TECHNIC
(B) PER MEDIO DE FORMAS COMPOSITORI
(III) DERIVATION COMPOSITE |
============= WORD BUILDING =============
§ 135. For the THEORY OF WORD BUILDING
reference is made to the
Interlingua-English Dictionary,
"Introduction",
pp. xlv-xlix.
The BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PRACTICAL WORD
BUILDING in Interlingua is analogical.
Every new formation must clearly be
patterned after a model in the
established vocabulary. A description of
the most common structural patterns in
the established vocabulary coincides
with the prescription governing new
formations.
[*1*] The following observations may serve to
elucidate the problem. In a discussion
of let us say the English verb it is
customary to take up a variety of
formations under the heading of "special
finite forms." Thus "interests" for
instance is called the third-person
present-tense form of the verb "to
interest." But also the participles
"interesting" and "interested" are
treated as forms of the verb although
they function quite freely as
independent adjectives and might as well
be called derivatives. There is nothing
wrong in this, but if the adjectives
"interesting" and "interested" are
regarded as special forms of "to
interest," then it is not easy to see
why one should not be allowed to speak
not only let us say of "teaches,
reteach, taught, teaching" but also of
"teacher, teachings, teachery,
teacherly, teacheress, school-teaching,
etc." as special forms of "to teach."
This somewhat unconventional way of looking at "derivatives" is extremely useful in an auxiliary language because it casts a very clear light on the principles of free or autonomous word building. Just as in English no one consults a dictionary to ascertain whether he may use the form "weighs" on the basis of the infinitive "to weigh," so no one -- if English were a constructed auxiliary language -- should feel the need to consult a dictionary before building words of the type of "roachy" (on "roach" after the model of "lousy") or "deedlessness" (on "deedless"). In English or any other traditional language convention and usage will set a hampering limit to this type of word building. Not so in Interlingua. Here the limit is set by usefulness and clarity. The first of these points, that of "usefulness," is hardly in need of further comment. Interlingua – like any traditional language – can build large numbers of "special forms" (or derivatives) which no one ever needs. A "rainer" – to use an English example – is "man who rains," but to most people it will come as a surprise that this word is actually listed in dictionaries. The prerequisite of clarity leads to the formulation that in the auxiliary language only those formative elements can be tolerated in free or autonomous formation which appear throughout the language as a whole with clearly definable values. If the English formation "mountibund" is impossible, the reason is not that "to mount" and "-ibund" fail to occur. They do. But "-ibund" is incapable of active formation because its occurrence in "moribund" and "furibund" does not give it an easily definable value. Free formations must be so clear that it makes perfect sense to speak of them as "special forms" of the base word from which they are derived. In the succeeding paragraphs the most important structural types are described, illustrated, and applied to new formations under the headings listed below.
I. DERIVATION
A. FROM NOUNS
a. TO FORM NOUNS
b. TO FORM ADJECTIVES
e. TO FORM VERBS
B. FROM ADJECTIVES
a. TO FORM NOUNS
b. TO FORM ADJECTIVES
c. TO FORM ADVERBS
d. TO FORM VERBS
C. FROM VERBS
II. COMPOUNDING
A. BY MEANS OF PREFIXES
a. GENERAL
b. TECHNICAL
B. BY MEANS OF COMPOUNDING FORMS
III. COMPOUNDING DERIVATION
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------------ I Derivation ------------ §136 Le termino DERIVATION es usate hic pro referer al formation de vocabulos per medio de suffixos. In le derivation, le parte de discurso del formation resultante es determinate per le suffixo. Substantivos e adjectivos que consiste de thema e termination perde le termination in le processo derivational. Le termination del derivato es parte del suffixo. Terminationes in iste senso es, in le caso de substantivos e adjectivos, le vocales final -a, -e, -o, e desinentias foranee como latin -us, -um, o grec -os, -is, etc. Pro verbos, vide §146 infra. §137 In le plus de casos, le junction de thema e affixo es un question de juxtaposition simple.
Quando le thema termina in -i e le
suffixo comencia con le mesme vocal, le
derivato complete es scribite con un
singule -i:
Nota que le addition de suffixos con
vocales initial a themas que termina in
-c pote cambiar le sono de ille
consonante. Quando per derivation un
originalmente dur -c (como in franc)
precede -i o -e, le pronunciation cambia
usualmente a un -c molle (como in
Francia). Inversemente, quando un
originalmente molle -c (como in cortice)
per derivation precede un -a o -o, le
pronunciation cambia usualmente a un -c
dur (como in cortical). Nonobstante, un
-c molle remane molle ante le suffixos
-ada, -ata, -age, -alia, -astro, -astra
e debe esser scribite -ci:
Similarmente un -c dur remane dur ante
le suffixos -eria, -ero, -esc, -ese,
-essa, -etta, -ette, -etto, -iera,
-iero, -issime, -issimo e debe esser
scribite -ch: Nota que le apparente irregularitate de un exemplo como ric –> ricchessa es a causa del facto que -cc es scribite -c quando illo appare in le fin de un parola.
Vocabulos que termina in -age (sia iste
gruppo de sonos un suffixo o non) retene
le pronunciation molle de -g (como -z in
anglese {azure}) in derivatos basate
super illos. Quando le suffixo comencia
in -a o -o, le -g es reimplaciate per
-gi:
orange + -ada –> orangiada: bibita de
orange; |
---------- Derivation ----------
§ 136. I. -- The term DERIVATION is here
used to refer to word building by means
of suffixes. In derivation the part of
speech of the resulting formation is
determined by the suffix. Nouns and
adjectives consisting of stem and
termination lose the latter in the
derivational process. The termination of
the derivative is part of the suffix.
Terminations in this sense are, in the
case of nouns and adjectives the final
vowels a, e, o, and foreign endings like
Latin -us, -um or Greek -os, -is, etc.
For verbs, see § 146 below.
§ 137 In most instances the joining of stem and affix is a matter of simple juxtaposition. When the stem ends in -i- and the suffix begins with the same vowel, the full derivative is spelled with only one -i-: rubie 'red' plus -ificar > rubificar 'to redden, make red.' Note that the addition of suffixes with initial vowels to stems ending in -c- may change the sound value of that consonant. When through derivation an originally hard c (as in franc) comes to precede i or e, its pronunciation changes as a rule to soft c (as in Francia). Inversely, when an originally soft c (as in cortice 'bark') comes through derivation to precede an a or o, its pronunciation changes as a rule to hard c (as in cortical). However, a soft c remains soft c before the suffixes -ada, -ata, -age, -alia, -astro, -astra and must be spelled -ci-: nuce 'nut' plus -ada > nuciada. Similarly hard c remains hard c before the suffixes -eria, -ero, -esc, -ese, -essa, -etta, -ette, -etto, -iera, -iero, -issime, -issimo and must be spelled -ch-: porco 'pig' plus -eria > porcheria 'pork shop.' Note that the seeming irregularity of an example like ricchessa 'riches' < ric 'rich' is due to the fact that cc is spelled c when it appears at the end of a word. Words ending in -age (whether this group of sounds be a suffix or not) retain the soft pronunciation of -g- (like z in 'azure') in derivatives based on them. When the suffix begins in a or o, the g is replaced by -gi-: orange plus -ada > orangiada; but orange plus -eria > orangeria 'orange greenhouse.'
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------------------------------ I.A Derivation ab substantivos ------------------------------ I.A.a Substantivos derivate ab substantivos §138 Substantivos es derivate AB SUBSTANTIVOS per medio del suffixos listate infra. Concernente substantivos que representa feminas, parallel a substantivos in -o que representa homines, vide §24 supra.
-ada
1. = producto facite de ...; p.ex.
limon –> limonada;
-age
(pronunciation: -aje)
= collection de ...; p.ex.
folio –> foliage;
-alia
= collection sin valor de ...; p.ex.
ferro –> ferralia: (partes de)
materiales de ferro que non plus es
usabile;
-ano
1. = nativo, citatano, o habitante de
...; p.ex.
Africa –> africano;
Nota: Usate con nomines de locos e
personas. In le caso de nomines de locos
que non termina in -a o -o como etiam de
omne nomines de personas, le variante
euphonic -iano es preferite; p.ex.
Marte –> martiano.
Le forma adjective correspondente es -an
(-ian). In le sensos (1) e (3) le forma
feminin es -ana (-iana). In le sensos
(1) e (2) synonymo de -ese. In le sensos
(1) e (3) synonymo de -ita.
-ario
I. = persona concernite con o
characterisate per ...; p.ex. mission ->
missionario;
II. 1. = collection de ...; p.ex.
vocabulo –> vocabulario;
herba –> herbario;
nove formationes:
proverbio –> proverbiario: collection de
proverbios;
insecto –> insectario;
2. = loco que contine ...; p.ex.
grano –> granario;
-astro
1. = persona inferior o sin valor; p.ex.
poeta –> poetastro: poeta inferior;
2. = apparentate per remaritage del patre
o del matre; p.ex.
Nota: Usate con substantivos que indica
esseres masculin. Le feminino
correspondente es -astra.
-ata
= contento de o quantitate continite in
...; p.ex.
coclear –> coclearata;
-ato
= function, stato, rango, jurisdiction,
periodo de officio, o territorio de ...;
p.ex.
duce –> ducato: territorio o
position/rango de duce;
novicio –> noviciato: periodo de
initiation;
-eria (pronunciation: -ería, con
accento super -i)
-ero
= uno qui labora con o commercia/negotia
in ...; p.ex.
barba –> barbero;
banca –> banchero;
-ese
-essa
1. = ... feminin; p.ex.
tigre –> tigressa;
-eto = boschetto de arbores del specie ...;
p.ex. pino –> pineto;
-etto, -etta
= ... parve o minor; p.ex.
hacha –> hachetta;
pacco –> pacchetto;
-ia
-ica
= scientia o studio de ...; p.ex.
electron –> electronica;
nove formation:
phonema –> phonemica;
-ico
= uno qui es experte in le arte o
scientia de ...; p.ex.
historia –> historico;
-iera
-iero
= arbore, arbusto, planta, etc. portante
o producente ...s;
p.ex. amandola –> amandoliero: arbore de
amandolas;
-il
= loco ubi ... es retenite; p.ex.
can –> canil;
-ina
= substantia facite de...,
characterisante, habente/con relation a,
etc. ...; p.ex.
caseo –> caseina;
-ismo
1. = stato o practica de esser un ...;
p.ex.
despota –> despotismo;
2. = [Medicina] condition anormal
resultante de excesso de ...;
p.ex. plumbo –> plumbismo: intoxication
de plumbo;
3. = doctrina o practica de, o
concernite con ...; p.ex.
Calvin –> calvinismo;
4. = alique characteristic de ..., o del
lingua de ...; p.ex.
hellen –> hellenismo;
-ista
-ita
-ite
= rocca o altere mineral que contine
..., resimila ...,
es characterisate per ..., ha relation a
...; p.ex.
ligno –> lignite;
meteoro –> meteorite;
-itis
= maladia inflammatori de ...; p.ex.
appendice –> appendicitis;
-oide
= alique como, o formate como ...; p.ex.
anthropo- –> anthropoide;
globo –> globoide;
-osis
= anormal o morbose condition, stato, o
processo de...; causate
per...; characterisate per...; p.ex.
neuro- –> neurosis;
tuberculo –> tuberculosis;
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--------------------- Derivation from nouns --------------------- § 138. I.A.a. -- Nouns are derived FROM NOUNS by means of the suffixes listed below. On the formation of nouns representing females parallel to nouns in -o representing males, see § 24 above.
-ada 1. 'product made from ...'
e.g.
limon 'lemon' > limonada 'lemonade';
-age (pron. -aje) 'collection of ...'
e.g.
folio 'leaf' > foliage;
-alia 'worthless collection of ...'
e.g.
ferro 'iron' > ferralia 'scrap iron';
-ano
1. 'native, citizen, or inhabitant of ...'
e.g.
Africa > africano 'African';
Note: Used with names of places and
persons.
In the case of place names not ending in
-a or -o as also of all names of
persons, the euphonic variant -iano is
to be preferred, e.g.
Marte 'Mars' > martiano 'Martian.'
The corresponding adjective form is -an
(-ian).
In senses (1) and (3) the corresponding
feminine is -ana (-iana).
In senses (1) and (2) synonym of -ese.
In senses (1) and (3) synonym of -ita.
-ario I. 'person concerned with or
characterized by ...'
e.g.
mission > missionario 'missionary';
Note:
Synonym of -ero and -ista which differ
from it in that -ero stresses
professional concern while -ista
suggests a person's preoccupation
(professional or avocational) with a
system, a science, an art, etc. Parallel
forms in both -ario and -ero are often
possible. The corresponding adjective
form is -ari. The corresponding feminine
is -aria.
II. 1. 'collection of ...'
e.g.
new formations:
proverbio 'proverb' > proverbiario
'collection of proverbs'; insecto
'insect' > insectario 'insectarium';
2. 'place containing ...'
e.g.
grano 'grain' > granario 'granary';
-astro 1. 'inferior or worthless ...'
e.g.
poeta 'poet' > poetastro 'poetaster';
2. 'related through remarriage of a
parent'
e.g.
patre 'father' > patrastro 'stepfather'
Note:
Used with nouns indicating male beings.
The corresponding feminine is -astra.
-ata 'contents of or quantity contained
in one ...'
e.g.
coclear 'spoon' > coclearata 'spoonful';
-ato 'function, status, rank,
jurisdiction, period of office,
or territory of a ...'
e.g.
duce 'duke' > ducato 'duchy, dukedom';
novicio 'novice' > noviciato
'novitiate';
-eria (pron. -er`ia)
-ero 'one who works with or deals in ...'
e.g.
barba 'beard' ) barbero 'barber';
banca 'bank' > banchero 'banker';
-ese
-essa 1. 'female ...'
e.g.
tigre 'tiger' > tigressa 'tigress';
-eto 'grove of... trees'
e.g.
pino 'pine' > pineto 'pine grove';
-etto, -etta 'little, small, or minor ...'
e.g.
hacha 'ax' > hachetta 'hatchet';
pacco 'pack, bundle' > pacchetto
'package, packet';
-ia
-ia (pron. -'ia)
2. 'art, science, or practice, also
profession, establishment, etc. of (a,
an) ...'
e.g.
geologo 'geologist' > geologia
'geology';
idolatra 'idolater' > idolatria
'idolatry';
-ica 'science or study of the ...'
e.g.
electron > electronica 'electronics';
-ico 'one skilled in the art or science
of ...'
e.g.
historia 'history' > historico
'historian';
-iera
1. 'that which contains, covers, or
protects ...'
e.g.
sucro 'sugar' > sucriera 'sugar bowl';
-iero 'tree, bush, plant, etc. bearing
or producing ...s'
e.g.
amandola 'almond' > amandoliero 'almond
tree';
-il 'place where ...s are kept'
e.g.
can 'dog' > canil 'kennel';
-ina 'substance made from, characterizing,
related to, etc., ...'
e.g.
caseo 'cheese' > caseina 'casein';
-ismo
1. 'state or practice of being a ...'
e.g.
despota 'despot' > despotismo
'despotism';
2. [Med.] abnormal condition resulting
from excess of ...'
e.g.
plumbo 'lead' > plumbismo 'plumbism,
lead poisoning';
3. 'doctrine or practice of, or
concerned with ...'
e.g.
Calvin > calvinismo 'Calvinism';
4. 'something characteristic of..., or
of the language of ...'
e.g.
hellen 'Hellene' > hellenismo 'Hellenism';
-ista
1. 'one who practices the art or science
of ...'
e.g.
biologia 'biology' > biologista
biologist;
tympano 'drum' > tympanista 'drummer,
tympanist';
-ita
1. 'inhabitant, citizen or native of
...'
e.g.
Neapole 'Naples' > neapolita
'Neapolitan';
-ite
'rock or other mineral containing...,
resembling ..., characterized by ..,
related to ...'
e.g.
ligno 'wood' > lignite 'lignite';
meteoro 'meteor' > meteorite
'meteorite';
-itis
'inflammatory disease of the ...'
e.g.
appendice 'appendix' > appendicitis
'appendicitis';
-oide
'something like, or shaped like ...'
e.g.
anthropo- 'man' > anthropoide
'anthropoid';
globo 'globe' > globoide 'globoid';
-osis
'abnormal or diseased condition, state,
or process of the...,
caused by ..., characterized by . ..,
etc.'
e.g.
neuro- 'nerve' > neurosis; tuberculo
'tubercle' tuberculosis;
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----------------------------------------- I.A.b Adjectivos derivate ab substantivos ----------------------------------------- §139 ADJECTIVOS es derivate AB SUBSTANTIVOS per medio del suffixos listate infra. Concernente le uso de substantivos in apposition con functiones quasi-adjectival, vide §30 supra.
-al
= pertinente a ..., characteristic de
..., etc.; p.ex.
natura –> natural;
-an
= pertinente a ...; specialmente, native
de ...; p.ex.
urbe –> urban;
Mohammed –> mohammedan;
Africa –> african;
-ari
= pertinente a ..., consistente de ...,
etc.; p.ex.
legenda –> legendari;
fragmento –> fragmentari;
-ate
= habente un ... o ...s; p.ex.
barba –> barbate;
vertebra –> vertebrate;
-esc
1. = como, similar a, o characteristic
de ...; p.ex.
gigante –> gigantesc;
-ese
= pertinente a ...; specialmente, native
de ..., (proveniente) de ...; p.ex.
China –> chinese;
-ic
= de, pertinente a ..., characterisate
per ...; p.ex.
cubo –> cubic;
nostalgia –> nostalgic;
-ifere
= portante, producente, rendente; p.ex.
cono –> conifere;
carbon –> carbonifere;
-ific
= facente, causante ...; p.ex.
pace –> pacific;
-in
= de, pertinente a, etc. ...; p.ex.
alcali [Chimia] –> alcalin;
can –> canin;
-ista
= pertinente a ...ismo o ...istas; p.ex.
evolution –> evolutionista: de evolution;
-oide
= como ..., o formate como ...; p.ex.
negro –> negroide;
-ose
= habente, abundante in ...;
characterisate per ...; p.ex.
joco –> jocose;
religion –> religiose;
-otic
= pertinente a ...osis; p.ex.
neurosis –> neurotic;
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----------------------------- Adjectives derived from nouns ----------------------------- § 139. I.A.b.- ADJECTIVES are derived FROM NOUNS by means of the suffixes listed below. On the use of nouns in apposition with quasi-adjectival functions, see § 30 above.
-al 'pertaining to ..., characteristic
of ..., etc.'
e.g.
natura 'nature' > natural;
-an
'pertaining to ...'; esp. 'native of
...'
e.g.
urbe 'town' > urban; Mohammed >
mohammedan 'Mohammedan';
Africa > african 'African';
-ari
'pertaining to ... , consisting of ... ,
etc.'
e.g.
legenda 'legend' > legendari,
'legendary';
fragmento 'fragment' > fragmentari
'fragmentary';
-ate
'having a... or ...s'
e.g.
barba 'beard' > barbate 'bearded';
vertebra > vertebrate;
-esc
1. 'like, similar to, or characteristic
of a ...'
e.g.
gigante 'giant' > gigantesc 'gigantic';
-ese
'pertaining to ...'; esp. 'native to...,
of ...';
e.g.
China > chinese 'Chinese';
-ic
'of, pertaining to ..., characterized by
...'
e.g.
cubo 'cube' > cubic; nostalgia >
nostalgic;
-ifere
'bearing, producing, yielding'
e.g.
cono 'cone' > conifere 'coniferous';
carbon 'coal' carbonifere
'carboniferous';
-ific
'making, causing ...'
e.g.
pace 'peace' > pacific;
-in 'of, pertaining to, etc., ...'
e.g.
alcali [Chem.] > alcalin 'alcaline';
can 'dog' > canin 'canine';
-ista
'pertaining to ...ism or ...ists'
e.g.
evolution > evolutionista 'of evolution,
evolutionist';
-oide
'like..., shaped like ...'
e.g.
negro 'Negro' > negroide 'negroid';
-ose
'having, abounding in . ..,
characterized by ...'
e.g.
joco 'joke' > jocose; religion >
religiose 'religious';
-otic
'pertaining to ...osis'
e.g.
neurosis and neurotic;
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------------------------------------- I.A.c Verbos derivate ab substantivos -------------------------------------
§140 VERBOS es derivate AB SUBSTANTIVOS
E ADJECTIVOS per medio del desinentia
verbal simple -ar o su formas composite
-ificar e -isar (-ficar e -sar post -i).
Le distinction de signification in
verbos derivate de iste tres typos es
plus difficile a definir que sentir.
Pro nove formationes, le punctos
sequente es a tener in mente: Le
desinentia -ar pote esser dicite haber
nulle significantia in se; illo mermente
indica le natura verbal del derivato. Le
signification specific associate con le
natura verbal pote esser clarificate per
altere factores. Pro illustrar: que
guantar (de guanto) probabilemente non
suggere le idea de 'render como guanto'
(per le modello de acierar [render como
aciero] de 'aciero'), o 'batter con un
guanto' (per le modello de martellar
[batter con un martello] de martello)
non es a causa de alicun signification
de -ar, sed es simplemente un question
de senso commun. Nove formationes in -ar
obtene lor signification specific per
contexto, senso commun, e sovente etiam
per le uso simultanee de un prefixo,
como per exemplo in afratrar (de
fratre), ubi a- suggere approximation
assi que le verbo significara 'facer un
fratre o fratres de', o in invinagrar
(de vinagre), ubi le prefixo suggere
immersion assi que le verbo significara
'adder vinagre'.
Le signification suggerite per formationes verbal in -ificar es illo de cambiar un cosa in alique que illo non esseva antea. In un de su aspectos, le suffixo -isar suggere similemente le idea de facer, sed plus tosto in le senso que un cosa es facite assumer un nove stato sin perder su identitate previe. Assi petrificar suggere un action que cambia in petra alique que esseva alique altere, durante que vaporisar suggere que un substantia le qual non cambia su identitate es transformate in vapor. In nove formationes, le distinction deberea esser clarmente observate. Per exemplo, papirificar [converter in papiro] (de papiro) poterea haber 'ligno' como su objecto, durante que papirisar [facer in papiro] possibilemente refererea al 'cortice' de un arbore que remane lo que illo esseva, sed comencia haber le apparentia de papiro.
-ar
-ificar
= facer, render ...; converter in ...;
p.ex.
ample –> amplificar;
petra –> petrificar;
-isar |
--------------------------------------- Verbs derived from nouns and adjectives ---------------------------------------
§ 140. I.A.c., I.B.d. For new formations the following points are to be borne in mind: The ending -ar may be said to have no meaning of its own; it merely indicates the verbal nature of the derivative. The specific meaning to be associated with that verbal nature is to be clarified by other factors. To illustrate: that guantar (from guanto 'glove') is not likely to suggest the ideas 'to render glovelike' (after the model of acierar 'to render steel-like' from aciero 'steel') or 'to slap with a glove' (after the model of martellar 'to beat with a hammer' from martello 'hammer') is not due to any signification of -ar but is simply a matter of common sense. New formations in -ar obtain their specific meaning through context, common sense, and often also through the simultaneous use of a prefix, as for instance in afratrar (from fratre 'brother'), where a- suggests approximation so that the verb will mean 'to make a brother or brothers of,' or in invinagrar (from vinagre 'vinegar'), where the prefix suggests immersion so that the verb will mean 'to put in vinegar.' The meaning suggested by verb formations in -ificar is that of making a thing over into something it was not before. In one of its aspects the suffix -isar suggests likewise the idea of making but rather in the sense that a thing is made to assume a new state without losing its former identity. Thus petrificar 'to petrify' suggests an action which makes something into a stone that was something else while vaporisar 'to vaporize' suggests that a substance which does not change its identity is made into vapor. In new formations the distinction should be clearly observed. For instance, papirificar 'to make into paper' (from papiro 'paper') might have 'wood' as its object while papirisar 'to make into paper' would apply possibly to the bark of a tree which remains what it was but begins to have the appearance of paper.
-ar
-ificar
'to make, render...; to convert into
...'
e.g.
ample > amplificar 'to amplify';
petra 'stone' > petrificar 'to petrify';
-isar |
|
------------------------ I.C Derivation ab verbos ------------------------ §145 Le suffixos usate in DERIVAR NOVE VOCABULOS AB VERBOS es generalmente connectite al thema verbal per medio de elementos transitional le quales non es le mesme pro omne verbos ni pro omne suffixos. Il es costumari citar le elementos transitional como parte del suffixos postverbal con le resultato que illos practicamente omnes appare sub plure formas variante (como -ation, -ition, -ion, etc.) Exceptiones es le suffixos constante -ada, -age, e -eria. Con omne formas variabile reducite a lor portion non-variabile, le suffixos postverbal es: -ada, -age, -eria, -nte, -ntia, -mento, -bile -ion, -ive, -ura, -or, -ori, -orio, -e.
----------- §146 Il pote esser dicite que omne verbo ha duo formas distincte sub le quales illo pote entrar in un derivato de suffixo postverbal. Le prime de iste formas o themas combinatori es sempre le infinitivo minus le desinentias infinitive -ar, -er, o -ir. Le suffixos que se combina con iste thema es -ada, -age, -eria, -nte, -ntia, -mento, -bile. Le ultime quatro de istes require un "elemento transitional." In le caso de verbos in -ar, illo es sempre -a; in le caso de verbos in -er, illo es -i pro -mento e -bile, e -e pro -nte e -ntia; in le caso de verbos in -ir, illo es -i pro -mento e -bile, e -ie pro -nte e -ntia. Pro illustrationes, vide §152. §147 Assi le formas complete del suffixos postverbal que se combina con le infinitivo minus le desinentia infinitive (prime thema) es: |
--------------------- Derivation from verbs --------------------- § 145. I.C.- The suffixes used in DERIVING NEW WORDS FROM VERBS are generally linked to the verbal stem by means of transition features which are not the same for all verbs nor for all suffixes. It is customary to cite the transition features as part of the postverbal suffixes with the result that practically everyone of them appears under several variant forms (as -ation, -ition, -ion, etc.). Exceptions are the constant suffixes -ada, -age, and -eria. With all variable forms reduced to their non-variable portion, the postverbal suffixes are:
-ada -ion
-age -ive
-eria -ura
-nte -or
-ntia -ori, -orio
-mento -e
-bile
§ 146. Every verb may be said to have
two distinct forms under which it can
enter into a postverbal suffix
derivative. The first of these combining
forms or stems is always the infinitive
less the infinitive endings -ar, -er, or
-ir. The suffixes which combine with
this stem are -ada, -age, -eria, -nte,
-ntia, -mento, -bile. The last four of
these require a "transition feature." In
the case of verbs in -ar, it is always
-a-; in the case of verbs in -er, it is
-i- for -mento and -bile and -e- for
-rite and -ntia; in the case of verbs in
-ir, it is -i- for -mento and -bile and
-ie- for -nte and -ntia. For
illustrations, see § 152.
§ 147. Thus the full forms of the
postverbal suffixes which combine with
the infinitive less the infinitive
ending (first stem) are:
|
suffixo (-ar) (-er) (-ir)
------- ------- ------- -------
-ada -ada -ada -ada
-age -age -age -age
-eria -eria -eria -eria
-nte -ante -ente -iente
-ntia -antia -entia -ientia
-mento -amento -imento -imento
-bile -abile -ibile -ibile
| |
|
Sub iste formas le suffixos individual
es tractate infra. Nota que -ante e su
variantes es participios presente e como
tales es tractate in §94 supra.
------------- §148 Le secunde forma o thema combinatori es o irregular - in qual caso illo es listate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary (vide, per exemplo, sub figer, verter, cognoscer, etc.)1 - o resulta del prime thema per le addition de -at in le caso de verbos in -ar, o -it in le caso de verbos in -er e -ir. Le suffixos que se combina con le secunde thema es: -ion, -ive, -ura, -or, -ori, -orio, -e.
---------- Le gruppo de verbos listate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary con infinitivos terminante in -er es subdividite in
(a) infinitivos que remane inalterate, Le gruppo de verbos con infinitivos in -ere non-accentuate coincide quasi completemente con ille verbos que es listate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary (e describite in Appendice 1) como habente infinitivos in -er e un secunde thema irregular. Quando iste systema es adoptate, il seque (con le duo modificationes date infra) que tote le verbos in -ere ha secunde themas irregular. Pro establir le nove gruppo complete de verbos in -ere, illo debe (a) esser facite includer un numero de verbos que es listate in le Dictionario sin un secunde thema irregular, e (b) esser reducite per alicun verbos que jam appare in le Dictionario con un thema irregular. (a) Le gruppo de verbos in -ere include le verbos sequente que non ha secunde themas irregular: |
Under these forms the individual
suffixes are treated below. Note that
-ante and its variants are present
participles and as such are
treated in § 94 above.
§ 148. The second combining form or stem is either irregular -- in which case it is given in the Interlingua-English Dictionary (see, for instance, under figer, verter, cognoscer, etc.)* -- or results from the first stem by the addition of -at- in the case of verbs in -at and of -it- in the case of verbs in -er and -it. The suffixes which combine with the second stem are -ion, -ive, -ura, -or, -ori, -orio.
__________ The group of verbs listed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary with infinitives ending in -er is subdivided in (a) infinitives which remain
unaffected and The group of verbs with infinitives in unstressed -ere coincides almost completely with those verbs which are listed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary (and described in Appendix I) as having infinitives in -er and an irregular second stem. When this system is adopted, it follows (with the two qualifications given below) that all verbs in -ere have irregular second stems. To establish the complete new group of verbs in -ere, it must (a) be made to include a number of verbs which are listed in the Dictionary without an irregular second stem and (b) be reduced by some verbs which do appear in the Dictionary with an irregular stem. (a) The group of verbs in -ere does include the following verbs which have no irregular second stem: |
| addere, appetere, arguere, congruere; incumbere, e succumbere; edere [mangiar], edere [editar], essere, fremere, furere, lambere, molere, perdere, petere, rendere, strepere, tremere, vergere, vivere, --- e lor compositos / and their compounds. | |
| (b) Le gruppo de verbos in -ere non include le verbos sequente que ha secunde themas irregular: | (b) The group of verbs in -ere does not include the following verbs which do have irregular second stems: |
| censer, compler, deler, docer; adherer, coherer, e inherer; indulger, luger, miscer, morder, mover, mulger, pender, posseder, rider, seder; assider, dissider, presider, resider, subsider, e obsider; sorber, sponder, suader, tener, tonder, torquer, torrer, vider, --- e lor compositos / and their compounds. | |
|
In reguardo de omne derivatos, le verbos
in -ere non-accentuate seque le patrono
describite in le texto pro verbos in -er
accentuate. Omne le participios passate
in -ite (sia de verbos in -er o -ere) es
accentuate super le tertie syllaba ab le
fin e non es afficite per le
orthographia collateral discutite in
§15h supra. --- §149 Per ligar le elementos -at e -it con le suffixos listate, un exposition de formas resulta in le qual le distinction inter le prime e secunde thema debe esser mantenite solo pro verbos con un secunde thema irregular. Le formas es: |
In regard to all derivatives the verbs
in unstressed -ere follow the patterns
described in the text for verbs in
stressed -er. All past participles in
-ite (whether from verbs in -er or -ere)
are stressed on the third syllable from
the end and are not affected by the
collateral spelling discussed in § 15h
above. --- § 149. By linking the elements -at- and -it- with the suffixes listed, a survey of forms results in which the distinction between first and second stem need be maintained only for verbs with an irregular second stem. The forms are: |
Verbos regular Verbos irregular
(addite al prime thema) (addite al secunde thema)
(-ar) (-er, -ir) (-ar, -er, -ir)
----------------------- -------------------------
-ation -ition -ion
-ative -itive -ive
-atura -itura -ura
-ator -itor -or
-atori -itori -ori
-atorio -itorio -orio
-ate -ite -e
|
|
§150 Nota: Omne verbos pote esser
tractate como regular con le resultato
de duplettos como
facer (fac-/fact-) –> factor o facitor;
tender (tend-/tens-) –> tenditor o
tensor: uno qui tende; etc.
In nove formationes le variante regular
es generalmente preferite. Le suffixo
-ate e su variantes forma adjectivos
participial como tractate in §95 supra.
Le suffixo -bile, que se combina
regularmente con le prime thema, es
ligate al secunde thema irregular quando
illo termina in -pt, -st, -s, -ss, o -x.
§151 Concernente le uso del formas
infinitive complete como substantivos,
vide §83 supra. |
§ 150. Note: All verbs may be treated as regular with the result of doublets like
facer 'to make') factor or facitor 'maker'; tender 'to stretch' > tenditor or tensor 'stretcher (one who stretches)'; etc. In new formations the regular variant is generally preferred. The suffix -ate and its variants form participial adjectives as treated in § 95 above. The suffix -bile which combines regularly with the first stem, is joined to the irregular second stem when it ends in -pt-, -st-, -s-, -ss-, or -x-. § 151. On the use of the full infinitive forms as nouns, see § 83 above. |
|
§152 Substantivos e adjectivos es
derivate ab verbos per medio del
suffixos listate infra. Le desinentias
infinitive in parentheses post le
variantes de suffixo identifica le
classe de verbos regular al qual le uso
de un suffixo particular es restringite.
Le variantes de suffixo que es
restringite in uso a combinationes con
secunde themas irregular es
explicitemente identificate como tales.
-------------------------------
-ada
= continuate o prolongate action de ...;
p.ex.
cavalcar: ir a cavallo –> cavalcada:
action de cavalcar;
-age
= action o processo de ...; p.ex.
acierar: laminar con aciero –> acierage:
placage de aciero;
-amento (-ar), -imento (-er, -ir)
= action o resultato de ...; p.ex.
arrangiar –> arrangiamento;
abolir –> abolimento;
-ante (-ar), -ente (-er), -iente (-ir)
= uno qui o lo que...; p.ex.
brillar –> brillante;
studer –> studente;
emollir [Medicina] –> emolliente;
-antia (-ar), -entia (-er), -ientia
(-ir)
= stato o qualitate de ...; p.ex.
tolerar –> tolerantia;
adolescer: devenir adulte ->
adolescentia;
experir –> experientia;
-ation (-ar), -ition (-er, -ir)
= action o resultato de ...; p.ex.
installar –> installation;
adder –> addition;
audir –> audition;
-ator (-ar), -itor (-er, -ir)
= uno qui, o lo que ...; p.ex.
administrar –> administrator;
accelerar –> accelerator;
consumer –> consumitor;
expedir –> expeditor;
-atorio (-ar), -itorio (-er, -ir)
= loco ubi, installation o instrumento
con le qual, ... es facite; p.ex.
laborar –> laboratorio;
abatter: –> abattitorio;
audir –> auditorio;
-atrice (-ar), -itrice (-er, -ir)
= un femina qui ...; p.ex.
imperar –> imperatrice;
consumer –> consumitrice;
expedir –> expeditrice;
-atura (-ar), -itura (-er, -ir)
= action o resultato de ...; p.ex.
filar –> filatura;
crear –> creatura;
vestir –> vestitura;
-eria
1. = loco ubi ... es facite; p.ex.
distillar –> distilleria;
-----------------------------
-abile (-ar), -ibile (-er, -ir)
= que pote esser ...te; que es digne a
...; p.ex.
observar –> observabile;
admirar –> admirabile;
leger –> legibile;
audir –> audibile;
-ante (-ar), -ente (-er), -iente (-ir)
= que ...; p.ex.
abundar –> abundante;
coherer: –> coherente;
obedir –> obediente;
-ate (-ar), -ite (-er, -ir)
In le caso de verbos que ha un secunde
thema irregular, le variante curte -e es
usate con ille thema. P.ex.
confunder (-fund-/-fus-) –> confuse;
-ative (-ar), -itive (-er, -ir)
In le caso de verbos que ha un secunde
thema irregular, le variante curte -ive
es usate con ille thema. P.ex.
reciper (-cip-/-cept-) –> receptive;
defender (-fend-/-fens-) –> defensive;
-atori (-ar), -itori (-er, -ir)
= pertinente a, o serviente pro, le
action de ...; p.ex.
circular –> circulatori;
merer –> meritori;
transir –> transitori;
|
§ 152. Nouns and adjectives are derived from verbs by means of the suffixes
listed below. The infinitive endings in parentheses following the suffix
variants identify the class of regular verbs to which the use of a
particular suffix is restricted. The suffix variants restricted in use to
combinations with irregular second stems are explicitly identified as
such.
------------------------
-ada n 'continued or prolonged action
of ...ing'
e.g.
cavalcar 'to ride on horseback' > cavalcada
'horseback ride';
-age n 'action or process of ...ing'
e.g.
acierar 'to plate with steel' > acierage
'steel plating';
-amento (-ar), -imento (-er, -ir) n 'action
or result of ...ing'
e.g.
arrangiar 'to arrange' > arrangiamento
'arrangement';
abolir 'to abolish' > abolimento
'abolishment';
-ante (-ar), -ente (-er), -ientia (-ir) n
'one who or that which is ...ing or ...s'
e.g.
brillar 'to shine' > brillante 'brilliant';
studer 'to study' > studente 'student';
emollir [Med.] 'to soften, to mollify' >
emolliente 'emollient';
-antia (, -entia (-er), -ientia (-ir) n
'state or quality of... ing'
e.g.
tolerar 'to tolerate' > tolerantia 'tolerance';
adolescer 'to grow up, to become adolescent' >
adolescentia 'adolescence';
experir 'to try' > experientia 'experience';
-ation (-ar), -ition (-er, -ir) n 'action or
result of ...ing'
e.g.
installar 'to install' >> installation; adder 'to
add' > addition;
audir 'to hear' > audition;
-ator (-at), -itor (-er, -ir) n 'one who, or
that which ...s'
e.g.
administrar 'to administrate' > administrator;
accelerar 'to accelerate' > accelerator;
consumer 'to consume' > consumitor 'consumer';
expedir 'to send off' > expeditor 'sender';
-atorio (-ar), -itorio (-er, -ir)
n 'place where, installation or instrument
with which, ...ing is done'
e.g.
laborar 'to work' > laboratorio 'laboratory';
abatter 'to knock or cast down' > abattitorio
'slaughterhouse';
audir 'to hear' > auditorio 'auditorium';
-atrice (-ar), -itrice (-er, ir) n 'a woman
who ...s'
e.g.
imperar 'to rule over' > imperatrice 'empress';
consumer 'to consume' > consumitrice
'(woman) consumer';
expedir 'to send off' > expeditrice
'(woman) sender';
-atura (-ar), -itura (-er, -ir) n 'action or
result of ...ing'
e.g.
filar 'to spin' > filatura '(act of) spinning';
crear 'to create' > creatura 'creature';
vestir 'to dress' > vestitura 'clothing';
-eria n 1. 'place where... is done'
e.g.
distillar 'to distill' > distilleria
'distillery';
-----------------------------
Adjectives derived from verbs
-----------------------------
-abile (-ar) -ibile (-er,-ir) adj 'that can
be ...ed; that is worthy to be ...ed'
e.g.
observar 'to observe' > observabile 'observable';
admirar 'to admire' > admirabile 'admirable';
leger 'to read' > legibile 'readable, legible';
audir 'to hear' > audibile 'audible';
-ante (-ar), -ente (-er), -iente (-ir) adj
'...ing, that ...s'
e.g.
abundar 'to abound' > abundante 'abounding,
abundant';
coherer 'to cohere, be coherent' > coherente
'coherent';
obedir 'to obey' > obediente 'obedient';
-ate (-ar), -ite (-er, -ir) adj
In the case of verbs which have an irregular
second stem, the short variant -e is used
with that stem.
E.g.
confunder (-fund-/-fus-) 'to confuse' >
confuse 'confused';
-ative (-ar), -itive (-er, -ir) adj
In the case of verbs which have an irregular
second stem, the short
variant -ive is used with that stem.
E.g.
reciper (-cip-/-cept-) 'to receive' > receptive;
defender (-fend-/-fens-) 'to defend' >
defensive;
-atori (-at), -itori (-er, -ir)
adj 'pertaining to, or serving for, the
action of ...ing'
e.g.
circular 'to circulate' > circulatori
'circulatory';
merer 'to merit' > meritori
'meritorious';
transit 'to go across' > transitori
'transitory';
|
|
----------------------------- Suffixos postverbal adjective ----------------------------- §153 Il ha cinque SUFFIXOS POSTVERBAL ADJECTIVE.
(1) -abile, -ibile
exprime que le action pote o poterea o
deberea esser applicate a un cosa o
persona:
causar - causabile: miraculos es
causabile solmente per fortias
supernatural
[miraculos pote esser causate solmente
per fortias supernatural]
(2) -ante, -ente, -iente
exprime que un cosa o persona exeque le
action del verbo:
causar - causante: le factor causante le
accidente [le factor que causa le
accidente]
(3) -ate, -ite, -e
exprime que un action, que non plus es
in progresso, concerneva un cosa o
persona:
causar - causate: le accidente causate
per su negligentia [le accidente que su
negligentia causava]
(4) -ative, -itive, -ive
exprime que un cosa o persona tende a,
es apte a, etc. exequer le action del
verbo:
causar - causative: le distinction de
plure factores causative
[le distinction de plure factores que
tende a causar, es probabile o apte a
causar un certe resultato]
(5) -atori, -itori, -ori
exprime que un cosa o persona ha de un
modo o un altere relation a, o connexion
con le action del verbo:
causar - causatori: le aspecto causatori
del problema [le aspecto del problema
que concerne como illo esseva causate]
|
----------------------------- Postverbal adjective suffixes -----------------------------
§ 153. There are five POSTVERBAL ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES:
1. -ante (-ente, -iente);
They express in this order:
1. that a thing or person is performing the
action of the verb (causar -- causante
'causing': le factor causaute le accidente
'the factor which causes the accident');
2. that a thing or person tends to, is apt to,
etc. perform the action of the verb (causar-
causative 'causative': le distinction de plure
factores causative 'the distinction of several
factors which tend to cause, are likely or apt
to cause a certain result'):
3. that a thing or person is somehow related
to, or connected with, the action of the verb
(causar -- causatori 'causatory':
le aspecto causatori del problema
'the aspect of the problem which has to do
with how it was caused');
4. that the action, no longer in progress, was
applied to a thing or person (causar--causate
'caused': le accidente causate per su neglecto
'the accident which was caused by his
negligence, which his negligence caused');
5. that the action can or could or ought to be
applied to a thing or person
(causar--causabile 'causable': miraculos es
causabile solmente per fortias supernatural
'miracles can be caused only by supernatural
forces').
|
|
------------------------------- Suffixos postverbal substantive ------------------------------- §154 Del SUFFIXOS POSTVERBAL SUBSTANTIVE, plures exprime aspectos plus o minus distincte del action del verbo. Illos es:
1. -ada; Lor distinction es sovente un caso de nuances accentuate, e in satis multe casos un formation pote assumer le loco del altere sin cambio perceptibile de signification. Le uso de illos omnes con le mesme verbo pote difficilemente esser obtenite sin artificio, sed pote servir pro definir lor connotationes individual de valor.
Con procurar como un exemplo fortuite,
le resultante postverbal substantivos de
action es:
(1) -ada
exprime action complite e vidite como un
integritate, o in su resultatos o como
un continuitate comprensive. Illo se
presta facilemente a esser usate in le
plural.
Procurada - pote significar un
procuration excessive a que on refere
con emphase super su successo o
rendimento.
(2) -age
exprime action complite o essente
complite e vidite como un singule
resultato o como un integre serie de
tales. Illo ha un tendentia a remaner
sufficientemente abstracte pro resister
a pluralisation.
Procurage - pote significar le procedura
de procurar alique con emphase implicate
super effortio, expensa, etc. involvite
o le occupation de un persona concernite
con procurar cosas, tal occupation
essente vidite como consistente de un
serie de proceduras de procurage.
(3) -eria
exprime action vidite como parte de un
commercio, occupation, campo de
interprisa, etc. involvente etiam le
production correspondente o in toto o in
pecias individual.
Procureria - pote significar le practica
(con omne su implicationes) de un
persona le occupation de qui es procurar
cosas. Isto es a parte del signification
plus crystallisate del loco de commercio
de un tal persona.
(4) -amento
exprime action vidite con referentia a
su effectos e resultatos.
Procuramento - pote significar
procuramento como un acto o action e le
effortio(s) pro procurar alique.
(5) -ation
exprime action o un action vidite como
un processo concrete que pote esser
repetite e a que assi pote esser referite
in le plural.
Procuration - significa procurar como un
execution definite.
(6) -atura
exprime action vidite con referentia a
su producto individual e assi ille
producto ipse como etiam, con extension,
le activitate del qual le producto
individual pote presentar se como un
symbolo. Procuratura - pote significar
le facto de procurar como etiam un
organisation o officio instaurate pro
procurar provisiones pro certe
requirimentos.
(7) -antia
exprime action vidite como le stato del
agente qui lo exeque. Procurantia - pote
significar procurar como un assignation
que pone certe exigentias super le
persona involvite.
(8) -ar
exprime action como action, il es,
vidite como un phenomeno abstracte que
non pote esser pluralisate.
Procurar - significa le (action de)
procurar.
|
------------------------ Postverbal noun suffixes ------------------------ § 154. Of the POSTVERBAL NOUN SUFFIXES several express more or less distinct aspects of the action of the verb. They are:
1. -ada;
Their distinction is often a matter of nuances
emphasized, and in a good many instances one
formation may take the place of another
without appreciable shift of meaning. The use
of all of them with one and the same verb can
hardly be achieved without artifice but may
serve to define their individual connotations
of value.
With procurar 'to procure' as a random
example, the resulting postverbal action nouns
are:
1. -ada expresses action done and viewed as a
whole, either in its results or as one
sweeping continuity. It lends itself readily
to being used in the plural. Procurada might
signify a procurement spree referred to with
emphasis on its success or yield.
2. -age expresses action done or being done
and viewed as a single achievement or as a
whole series of such. It tends to remain
sufficiently abstract to resist pluralization.
Procurage might signify the procedure of
procuring something with implied emphasis on
the effort, expense, etc. involved or the
occupation of a person concerned with
procuring things, such occupation being viewed
as consisting of a series of procurage
procedures.
3. -eria expresses action viewed as part of a
business, occupation, field of endeavor, etc.
involving as well the corresponding production
either as a whole or in individual pieces.
Procureria might signify the practice
(with all its implications) of a person whose
business it is to procure things. This aside
from the more crystallized meaning of the
place of business of such a person.
4. -amento expresses action viewed with
reference to its effects and results.
Procuramento might signify procurement as an
act or action and the endeavor to procure
something.
5. -ation expresses action or an action
viewed as a tangible process which can be
repeated and hence referred to in the plural.
Procuration means procuring as a definite
performance.
6. -atura expresses action viewed with
reference to its individual product and hence
that product itself as well as, by extension,
the activity of which the individual product
may stand as a symbol. Procuratura might
signify the fact of procuring as well as an
organization or office set up to procure
supplies for certain requirements.
7. -antia expresses action viewed as the state
of the agent performing it. Procurantia might
mean procuring as an assignment which makes
certain demands upon the person involved.
8. -ar expresses action as action, that is,
viewed as an abstract phenomenon which cannot
be pluralized. Procurar signifies procuring.
Note:
The logical distinction between the several
postverbal action nouns cannot be carried very
far. In practice the choice of one or the
other formation is often governed by
non-logical considerations which are not
therefore less vital. Their import and effect
coincide, broadly speaking, with English
usage.
|
|
============== II Composition ==============
§155 Le termino COMPOSITION es usate hic
pro referer al formation de vocabulos
per le combination de un vocabulo e un
prefixo, o de duo vocabulos complete. In
ambe casos le portion prefixate del
composito modifica le secunde elemento
le qual determina le parte de discurso
del vocabulo resultante. Nota que le
secunde elemento sovente se establi como
representante un date parte del discurso
solmente per le processo de composition.
P.ex. in rehabilitar, le prefixo pare
modificar un verbo habilitar, sed illo
de facto se establi directemente super
le base de habile. In le expositiones
sequente iste phenomeno ha essite
considerate normal e dunque non
necessita commento special. Vide etiam
§163 infra.
§156 Il es conveniente distinguer inter PREFIXOS GENERAL e TECHNIC. Le distinction seque nulle regula rigide sed resulta del facto (le qual pare esser characteristic de omne linguas moderne e certemente non es un tracto distinctive de Interlingua) que terminologias scientific opera con prefixos que es rarmente incontrate in le vocabulario general quotidian. |
=========== COMPOUNDING ===========
§ 155. II. -- The term COMPOUNDING is here used to refer to word building
by the combination of one word and a prefix or of two full-fledged words.
In either case the prefixed portion of the compound modifies the second
element which determines the part of speech of the resulting formation.
Note that the second element often establishes itself as representing a
given part of speech only through the compounding process.
E.g.
in rehabilitar 'to rehabilitate,' the prefix seems to modify a
verb habilitar 'to habilitate' but it actually establishes
itself directly on the basis of habile 'able.'
In the following surveys this phenomenon has been considered normal
and therefore not in need of special comment. See also § 163 below.
§ 156. II.A.--It is convenient to distinguish between GENERAL and TECHNICAL PREFIXES. The distinction follows no hard-and-fast rule but results from the fact (which seems to be characteristic of all modern languages and is certainly no distinctive feature of Interlingua) that scientific terminologies operate with prefixes which are rarely found in the general everyday vocabulary. |
|
----------------------- II.A.a Prefixos general ----------------------- §157 Le PREFIXOS GENERAL sequente es usate pro modificar substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos como indicate in cata occurrentia:
ad-
(in verbos)
= a, verso, a in; p.ex.
judicar –> adjudicar;
currer –> accurrer: venir currente;
costa –> accostar: approchar le costa,
adressar o diriger se a (alicuno);
ante-
(in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
= precedente in tempore o spatio; p.ex.
camera –> antecamera;
penultime –> antepenultime;
diluvio –> antediluvian;
poner –> anteponer;
anti-
(in substantivos e adjectivos)
= opponite a, contra; opposite; p.ex.
arctic –> antarctic;
papa –> antipapa;
auto-
(in substantivos e adjectivos)
= ipse, (alicuno/alique) mesme, de o per
se mesme; p.ex.
biographia –> autobiographia;
mobile –> automobile;
circum-
(in verbos e adjectivos)
= circa, in position o motion plus o
minus circular; p.ex.
navigar –> circumnavigar;
polo –> circumpolar;
vicin –> circumvicin;
co-
(in substantivos e adjectivos)
= juncte, associate; p.ex.
national –> conational: del mesme pais;
hereditario –> cohereditario;
con-
(in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
= con, insimul, junctemente,
mutualmente; p.ex.
matre –> commatre: matrina;
latere –> collateral;
temporanee –> contemporanee;
exister –> coexister;
religion –> correligionario;
contra-
(in substantivos e verbos)
= contra, opponente; contrari a; p.ex.
balancia –> contrabalancia;
dicer –> contradicer;
dis-
(in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
ex-
(in substantivos)
= precedente, previe; p.ex.
presidente –> ex-presidente;
extra-
gran-
(in nomines del parentela)
= ... "grande", "ulterior"; p.ex.
patre –> granpatre;
amita –> granamita;
in-
inter-
(in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
= inter, intra; p.ex.
linear –> interlinear;
acto: (de un drama) –> interacto;
maxilla –> intermaxiliar;
intra-
(in adjectivos)
= in, intra, al interior, interne; p.ex.
venose –> intravenose;
intro-
(in verbos)
= intro, verso le interior; p.ex.
ducer: conducer –> introducer;
mis-
(in verbos)
= in modo mal, false, o incorrecte;
p.ex.
interpretar –> misinterpretar;
non-
(in substantivos e adjectivos)
= non ..., manco o absentia de ...;
p.ex.
conformista –> nonconformista;
senso –> nonsenso;
per- (in verbos)
post- (in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
= post, sequente in tempore, loco, o
ordine; p.ex.
poner –> postponer: ajornar,
procrastinar;
glacie –> postglacial;
pre-
(in substantivos, adjectivos, e verbos)
= precedente in tempore, position o
rango; p.ex.
dominar –> predominar;
historia –> prehistoria;
matur –> prematur;
pro- |
§ 157. II.A.a. -- The following GENERAL PREFIXES are used to modify nouns,
adjectives, and/or verbs as indicated in every instance:
ad- (in verbs) 'to, toward, into'
e.g.
judicar 'to judge' > adjudicar 'to adjudge';
currer 'to run' > accurrer 'to come running';
costa 'coast' > accostar 'to accost';
ante- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
'preceding in time or space'
e.g.
camera 'room' > antecamera 'anteroom';
penultime 'penultimate' > antepenultime
'antepenultimate';
diluvio 'deluge' > antediluvian;
poner 'to place' > anteponer 'to prepose';
anti- (in nouns and adjectives) 'opposed to,
against; opposite'
e.g.
arctic > antarctic;
papa 'Pope' > antipapa 'antipope';
auto- (in nouns and adjectives) 'self'
e.g.
biographia 'biography' > autobiographia
'autobiography';
mobile 'mobile' > automobile 'self-propelling,
automobile';
circum- (in verbs and adjectives) 'about,
around'
e.g.
navigar 'to navigate' > circumnavigar 'to
circumnavigate';
polo 'pole' > circumpolar;
vicin 'neighboring' > circumvicin
'circumjacent';
co- (in nouns and adjectives) 'joint, fellow'
e.g.
national > conational 'from the same country,
conational';
hereditario 'heir' > cohereditario 'coheir';
con- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs) 'with,
together, jointly, mutually'
e.g.
matre 'mother' > commatre 'godmother';
latere 'side' > collateral;
temporanee 'temporal' > contemporanee
'contemporaneous, contemporary';
exister 'to exist' > coexister 'to coexist';
religion > correligionario 'co-religionist';
contra- (in nouns and verbs) 'against,
opposing; counter or contrary to'
e.g.
balancia 'balance' > contrabalancia
'counterbalance';
dicer 'to say' > contradicer 'to contradict';
dis- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
ex- (in nouns) 'former'
e.g.
presiderite 'president' > ex-presidente
'ex-president';
extra-
gran- (in names of kinship) 'grand-, great-'
e.g. patre 'father' > granpatre 'grandfather';
amita 'aunt' > granamita 'great-aunt';
in-
inter- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
'between, among'
e.g.
linear 'to line' > interlinear 'to interline';
acto 'act of a play' > interacto 'entr'acte';
maxilla 'jawbone' > intermaxiliar
'intermaxillary';
intra- (in adjectives) 'inside, within'
e.g.
venose 'venous' > intravenose 'intravenous';
intro- (in verbs) 'inwards, to the inside'
e.g.
ducer 'to lead, conduct' > introducer 'to
introduce';
mis- (in verbs) 'badly, wrongly'
e.g.
interpretar 'to interpret' > misinterpretar
'to misinterpret';
non- (in nouns and adjectives) 'not . ..,
lack or absence of'
e.g. conformista 'conformist' >
nonconformista 'nonconformist';
senso 'sense' > nonsenso 'nonsense';
per- (in verbs)
post- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
'behind, after in time, location, or order'
e.g.
poner 'to put, lay' > postponer 'to postpone,
delay';
glacie 'ice' > postglacial;
pre- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs) 'before
in time, position or rank'
e.g.
dominar 'to dominate' > predominar 'to
predominate';
historia 'history' > prehistoria 'prehistory';
matur 'mature' > prematur 'premature';
pro-
re- (in verbs)
retro- (in verbs) 'back, backwards'
e.g.
ceder 'to cede' > retroceder 'to retrocede';
sub- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
super- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
trans- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
ultra- (in nouns, adjectives, and verbs)
'beyond'
e.g.
passar 'to pass' > ultrapassar 'to go beyond';
violette 'violet' > ultraviolette
'ultraviolet';
vice- (in nouns) 'one who takes the place of'
e.g.
rege 'king' > vicerege 'viceroy';
|
|
----------------------- II.A.b Prefixos technic ----------------------- §158 Le prefixos technic sequente es usate pro modificar substantivos e adjectivos:
a-
= non ..., sin, carente ...; p.ex.
esthesia –> anesthesia;
gnostic: referente a cognoscentia ->
agnostic;
amphi-
ana-
= de novo, repetite; p.ex.
baptismo –> anabaptismo;
apo-
cata-
dia-
dys-
= mal, non (functionante) ben,
defectuosemente, deficientemente; p.ex.
pepsia –> dyspepsia;
ecto-
= exterior, externe; p.ex.
derma (in compositos) –> ectoderma
[Zoologia];
en-
= in, a in; p.ex.
demo [Antiquitate grec] –> endemia
[Medicina];
endo-
= interiormente, internemente, intra;
p.ex.
gamo- –> endogame:
osmose –> endosmose;
ento-
= intra, al interior de; p.ex.
-zoon –> entozoon: parasito intestinal;
epi-
= super, supra; p.ex.
-tapho- –> epitaphio;
exo-
= extra, al exterior de; p.ex.
gamo- –> exogame;
osmose –> exosmose;
hyper-
= super, supra, trans; ultra; troppo; p.ex.
critic –> hypercritic;
tension –> hypertension;
hypo-
meta-
para-
peri-
= circa, circum; p.ex.
metro –> perimetro;
syn-
= con, insimul; similar; p.ex.
logos –> syllogisar;
phon-: voce, sono –> symphone;
|
§ 158. II.A.b.- The following technical prefixes are used to modify nouns
and adjectives:
a- 'not...; without . .., lacking ...'
e.g.
esthesia > anesthesia;
gnostic 'relating to knowledge' > agnostic;
amphi-
ana- 'again'
e.g.
baptismo 'baptism' > anabaptismo 'anabaptism';
apo- 1. 'off, away'
e.g.
geo- 'earth' > apogee 'apogean';
cata-
dia-
dys- 'bad, badly, not well'
e.g.
pepsia 'digestion' > dyspepsia;
ecto- 'outside, external'
e.g.
derma (in compounds) 'skin' > ectoderma
[Zool.] 'ectoderm';
en- 'in, into'
e.g.
demo [Gr. Antiq.] 'demos' > endemia [Med.]
'endemic';
endo- 'within'
e.g. gamo- 'marriage' > endogame 'endogamous';
osmose 'osmosis' > endosmose 'endosmosis';
ento- 'within, inside'
e.g.
-zoon 'animal' > entozoon 'entozoen,
intestinal parasite';
epi- 'on, upon'
e.g.
-tapho- 'tomb' > epitaphio 'epitaph';
exo- 'without, outside'
e.g.
gamo- 'marriage' > exogame 'exogamous';
osmose 'osmosis' > exosmose 'exosmosis';
hyper- 'over; beyond; too much'
e.g.
critic 'critical' > hypercritic
'hypercritical';
tension > hypertension;
hypo-
meta-
para-
peri- 'around, about'
e.g.
metro 'measure' > perimetro 'perimeter';
syn- 'with, together; alike'
e.g.
logos 'logos' > syllogisar 'to syllogize';
chrono- 'time' > synchrone 'synchronous';
phon- 'voice, sound' > symphone 'symphonicus'; |
|
------------------------------------ II.B Composition per medio de formas compositori ------------------------------------
§159 Compositos que resulta del
COMBINATION DE DUO VOCABULOS COMPLETE es
formate o per juxtaposition simple -
como illustrate per anglese {teapot},
{thunderstorm}, {goose flesh}, etc. - o
involve le uso de un tracto compositori
- p.ex.
{cylindr-o-cellular}, {man-i-cure}, etc.
Interlingua manca del illimitate
possibilitate de composition active per
juxtaposition simple que es
characteristic (ben que non un tracto
distinctive) del linguas germanic. Inter
le expedientes expressive disponibile in
Interlingua como complementos de su
systema de composition, le sequentes es
a notar:
(a) Compositos anglese sovente corresponde
a formationes de suffixo in Interlingua
(-ero/-era, -iero/-iera,
-eria, ...):
|
§ 159. II.B. -- Compounds which result from
the COMBINATION OF TWO FULL-FLEDGED WORDS are
formed either by simple juxtaposition -- as
illustrated by English
'teapot,' 'thunderstorm,' 'goose flesh,' etc.
-- or involve the use of a compounding feature
-- e.g. 'cylindr-o-cellular,'
'man-i-cure,' etc. Interlingua lacks the
unlimited possibility of active compounding by
simple juxtaposition which is characteristic
(although not a distinctive feature) of the
Teutonic languages. Among the expressive
devices available in Interlingua as
complements of its compounding system,
the following are to be noted:
(a) English compounds often correspond to
Interlingua suffix formations.
|
lactero: milkman
lactera: milkmaid
lacteria: (milk shop) dairy
risiera: rice field
porchero: swineherd
porchiera: pigsty
porcheria: pork shop
pruniero: plum tree
frambesiero: raspberry bush
| |
| (b) Compositos anglese corresponde multo frequentemente a expressiones prepositional in Interlingua. Le selection del preposition permitte sovente un clar exposition del relation inter le elementos que in anglese es lassate al contexto e senso commun; p.ex. in le anglese le parolas {sea-man} e {milkman} in se non nos dice que le secunde non naviga super le lacte e que le prime non vende aqua de mar. | (b) English compounds correspond very frequently to Interlingua prepositional phrases. The choice of the preposition permits often a clear statement of the relationship between the elements which in English is left to context and common sense. E.g.: it is not the words 'seaman' and 'milkman' which tell us that the latter does not sail on milk and that the former does not sell sea water. |
~ de ~
------
station de omnibus: bus station
libro de cassa: cashbook
musica de camera: chamber music
~ a ~
-----
tractor a erucas: caterpillar tractor
sala a attender: waiting room
sacco a mano: handbag
| |
| (c) In numerose casos, compositos anglese es rendite le melio in Interlingua per substantivos modificate per adjectivos. | (c) In numerous instances English compounds are best rendered in Interlingua by nouns modified by adjectives. |
~ ~(adj)
--------
lumine solar : sunlight
sacco lacrimal : tearpit
pelle rubie : redskin
vaso sanguinari: blood vessel
| |
|
§160 Composition active in Interlingua
es ligate a, sed completemente libere
intra le limites de, patronos analoge.
Isto significa que - a parte de formas
compositori que functiona como affixos
virtual (vide §§161, 164 infra) - le
elementos a junger in un nove composito
debe cata uno occurrer in un o plure
compositos traditional le quales servi a
monstrar sub qual forma le parolas
separate entra in le composito. Nota que
le majoritate de compositos es ligate
per un vocal como tracto compositori.
Iste vocal dispare generalmente quando
le prime sono del secunde elemento es de
novo un vocal. Le vocal compositori es
sovente sed non necessarimente le
desinentia normal del prime elemento
quando usate como un parola
independente. In le grande majoritate
del compositos le ligamine vocal es -o o
-i.
In le exemplos sequente, composition active es illustrate secundo le patrono del equation: composito traditional-A e composito traditional-B permitte le formation del nove composito-C. - Nota: Alicunes del compositos date como nove formationes in Interlingua pote naturalmente exister in le vocabulario de un o altere lingua ethnic. |
§ 160. Active compounding in Interlingua is bound to, but completely
free within the limits of, analogical patterns. This means that -- apart
from compounding forms which function as virtual affixes (see §§ 161, 164
below) -- the elements to be joined in a new compound must each occur in
one or several traditional compounds which serve to show under what form
the separate words enter into the compound. Note that most compounds are
linked by a vowel compounding feature. This disappears generally when the
first sound of the second element is again a vowel. The compounding vowel
is often but not necessarily the normal ending of the first element when
used as an independent word. In the great majority of compounds the vowel
link is o or i.
In the following examples active compounding is illustrated within the pattern of the equation: traditional compound A and traditional compound B permit the formation of the new compound C. -- Note: Some of the compounds given as new Interlingua formations may naturally exist in the vocabulary of one or another ethnic language. |
A B C Interlingua English hepat-ologia appendic-ectomia hepatectomia: excision del hepate removal of the liver cyano-typo claustro-phobia cyanophobia: timor del color blau fear of the color blue scia-machia necro-mantia sciamantia: prophetia per umbras prophecy by shadows gene-alogo idol-atria genealatria: adoration de descendita worship of descent ligni-cole agri-cultura lignicultura: cultivation de ligno cultivation of wood pseudo-classic micro-cosmic pseudocosmic: pseudocosmic pseudocosmic | |
|
§161 Un numero considerabile de vocabulos occurre si
frequentemente in compositos que lor formas compositori (insimul
con le vocal compositori si illo existe) differe pauco de un
prefixo o un suffixo. Illos que es a usar liberemente in
qualcunque combination de senso con un altere elemento (que pote
sed non necessarimente debe occurrer in compositos traditional)
es listate infra, e es sequite per un o plure exemplos
traditional e nove formationes. Illos se monstrara
specialmente utile pro varie requirimentos scientific e
technic. Cf. etiam §164 infra.
------------------------------
aero- (forma combinante de aere); p.ex. aeronave: nave aeree; aerodynamic; aerostatica: statica de aere; nove formationes: aeropression: pression de aere; aerophobia; aerotherapia: therapia per aere; aerotransporto: transporto aeree; - 98 - archi- = principal, in chef, eminente; p.ex. archiepiscopo: episcopo principal; nove formationes: archidarwinista; archilegal: legal sin le minime dubita; electro- (forma combinante de electric, electricitate, etc.); p.ex. electromotor; electrotherapia: therapia per electricitate; nove formationes: electropropulsion: propulsion per electricitate; electropiano: piano electric; equi- (forma combinante de eque con le signification de equal) = equal, equalmente; p.ex. equilateral; equivaler: esser equivalente; nove formationes: equicurvate: habente duo curvas equal; equisonantia: modo identic de sonar; hetero- = altere, differente; p.ex. heterosexual; nove formation: heteroracial: de racias differente; homo- (ante vocales hom-) = mesme, similar; p.ex. homologe; homocentric; nove formationes: homolithic: consistente del mesme petra; homopersonal: consistente de un e le mesme persona; homeo- (ante vocales home-) = simile, similar; p.ex. homeopathic; nove formationes: homeolithic: consistente de petras similar; homeoracial: de racias similar; - 99 - hydro- = aqua; p.ex. hydroelectric; hydrocephalo; nove formationes: hydrosaturate: saturate per aqua; hydrochimia: chimia del aqua; iso- (synonymo de equi-) = equal, uniforme, similar; p.ex. isometric; isodynamic; nove formationes: isoradial: habente radios equal; isoglotte: parlante le mesme lingua; macro- (sovente contrastate con micro-) = longe, grande; p.ex. macroscopic; macroseismo: seismo major; nove formationes: macroorganismo: grande organismo (visibile per le oculos nude); macropetale: habente petalos grande; micro- (sovente contrastate con macro-) = parve; microscopic; p.ex. microcosmo; microcephale: habente un cranio parve; nove formationes: microcellular: de cellulas microscopic; microphono; neo- = nove, moderne; p.ex. neolatin; neonato: baby justo nascite; nove formationes: neoromantic; neo-jeffersonismo; - 100 - omni- (forma combinante de omne) = omne, tote, cata; p.ex. omnivore: mangiante qualcunque cosa; omnipotente; nove formationes: omniaudiente: audiente toto; omniprotector: protector de toto; paleo- (sovente contrastate con neo-) = vetule, ancian; p.ex. paleozoic; nove formationes: paleohistoria: historia ancian; paleoindoeuropee: indo-europee primitive; pan- = includente toto; p.ex. panamerican; nove formationes: pandualismo: dualismo universal; panarchia: governamento [regno] universal; photo- 1. = lumine; 2. = photographia; p.ex. photographia; nove formationes: photoanalyse: analyse de o per lumine; photosculptura: sculptura per medio de photographias; proto- = prime, primitive, prototypic; p.ex. prototypo; nove formationes: protoanimal; protoreligion: prototypo de religion; pseudo- = false, apparentemente similar, pretendite; p.ex. pseudoclassic; nove formationes: pseudohuman; pseudotolerantia: false apparentia de tolerantia; - 101 - quasi- = quasi, a un certe grado, simile a; p.ex. quasi-delicto; nove formationes: quasi-ver; quasi-confidentia; radio- 1. = de radios o radiation; radioactive 2. = (receptor de) radio; p.ex. radiographia; radiodiffunder: transmitter; nove formationes: radiotheoria: theoria de radiation; radiopropaganda: publicitate per radio; tele- = lontan, distante; p.ex. telescopio; television; nove formationes: telediffunder: transmitter a distantia; teleanalyse: analyse a distantia;
--------------------------------
-icida = occisor; p.ex. matricida: occisor de su matre; nove formationes: bufonicida: occisor de bufon; draconicida: occisor de dracon; -icidio = occision; p.ex. matricidio: occision de su proprie matre; nove formationes: odoricidio: occision de odores; hippicidio: occision de cavallos; -omane = demente, folle, maniac; p.ex. megalomane (adj); nove formationes: alcoholomane: appetente le alcohol; telephonomane: qui depende dementemente del uso del telephone; Nota: Le derivatos -omano [un homine assi afflicte], -omana [un femina assi afflicte], e -omania [le affliction ipse] pote -ometro = instrumento de mesura; p.ex. serometro; nove formationes: crystallometro; cardiometro; -ographo 1. = instrumento que scribe o registra; 2. = persona qui registra; p.ex. seismographo; biographo; nove formationes: heliographo; fluxographo: instrumento que mesura quantitate o velocitate del fluxo; Nota: Le derivato -ographia [systema o technica de registration] pote equalmente esser usate como un suffixo. -ologo = persona experte o specialisate in ...; p.ex. graphologo; nove formationes: petroleologo: experto in petroleo; scientiologo: studente del organisation del scientias; Nota: Le derivato -ologia [scientia] pote equalmente esser usate como un suffixo. -103- -ophile (sovente contrastate con -ophobe) = qui ama ..., qui es affectionate de ...; p.ex. bibliophile (adj); nove formationes: heliophile: qui affectiona le sol; palestinophile; Nota: Le derivatos -ophilo [un homine assi characterisate], -ophila [un femina assi characterisate], e -ophilia [le tendentia ipse] pote equalmente esser usate como suffixos. -ophobe (sovente contrastate con -ophile) = qui time, non ama, o ha aversion a ...; p.ex. anglophobe; nove formation: hispanophobe; Nota: Le derivatos -ophobo [un homine assi characterisate], -ophoba [un femina assi characterisate], e -ophobia [le tendentia ipse] pote equalmente esser usate como suffixos. -oscopo = scientista qui examina ...; p.ex. cranioscopo; nove formation: röntgenoscopo: examinator de radios Röntgen; Nota: Le derivatos -oscopio [le instrumento que servi le -oscopo], -oscopia [le campo del studio], e -oscopic [pertinente al studio] pote equalmente esser usate como suffixos. §162 Concernente numerales composite, cf. §119 supra; concernente numerales como elementos de composition §128. |
§ 161. A considerable number of words occur so frequently in compounds that
their compounding form (together with the compounding vowel if any)
differs little from a prefix or suffix. Those to be used freely in any
meaningful combination with another element (which may but need not occur in traditional compounds) are listed below followed by one or several
traditional examples and new formations. They will prove especially
useful for various scientific and technical requirements. Cf. also § 164
below.
a) First elements or prefixes
aero- (combining form of acre 'air'),
e.g.
aeronave 'airship,'
aerodynamic, aerostatica 'aerostatics';
new formations:
aeropression 'air pressure,'
aerophobia, aerotherapia 'aerotherapy,'
aerotransporto 'air transport'
archi- ('arch-, archi-'),
e.g.
archiepiscopo 'archbishop';
new formations:
archidarwinista 'arch-Darwinist',
archilegal 'archlegal, legal beyond the
shadow of a doubt'
electro- (combining form of electric,
electricitate, etc.
'electric, electricity, etc.'),
e.g.
electromotor, electrotherapia
'electrotherapy';
new formations:
electropropulsion 'propulsion by
electricity,'
electropiano 'electric piano'
equi- (combining form of eque with the
meaning of equal 'equal, equally'),
e.g.
equilateral,
equivaler 'to be equivalent';
new formations:
equicurvate 'having two equal curves,'
equisonantia 'equal sounding'
hetero- ('other, different'),
e.g. heterosexual;
new formation:
heteroracial 'of different races'
homo- (before vowels hom-; 'same'),
e.g.
homologe 'homologous,'
homocentric;
new formations:
homolithic 'consisting of the same stone,'
homopersonal 'having one person'
homeo- (before vowels home-; 'like,
similar'),
e.g.
homeopathic;
new formations:
homeolithic 'consisting of similar stone,'
homeoracial 'of similar races'
hydro- ('water'),
e.g.
hydroelectric, hydrocephalo 'hydrocephalus';
new formations:
hydrosaturate 'water-saturated,'
hydrochimia 'chemistry of water'
iso- (synonym of equi-; 'equal'),
e.g.
isometric, isodynamic;
new formations:
isoradial 'having equal radii,'
isoglotte 'speaking the same language'
macro- ('long, large,' often contrasted with
micro-),
e.g.
macroscopic, macroseismo 'major earthquake';
new formations:
macroorganismo 'large organism (visible to the
naked eye),'
macropetale 'large-petaled'
micro- ('small; microscopic,' often contrasted
with macro-),
e.g.
microcosmo 'microcosm,'
microcephale 'small-skulled';
new formations:
microcellular 'of microscopic cells,'
microphono 'microphone'
neo- ('new, modern'),
e.g.
neolatin, neonato 'new-born baby';
new formations:
neoromantic,
neo-jeffersonismo 'neo-Jeffersonianism'
omni- (combining form of omne 'all, every'),
e.g.
omnivore 'eating anything,'
omnipotente 'onmipotent';
new formations:
omniaudiente 'hearing everything,'
omniprotector 'all-protector'
paleo- ('old, ancient'; often contrasted with
neo-),
e.g.
paleozoic;
new formations:
paleohistoria 'early history,'
paleoindoeuropean 'primitive Indo-European'
pan- ('including all'),
e.g.
panamerican 'Pan-American';
new formations:
pandualismo 'universal dualism,'
panarchia 'universal rule'
photo- (1. 'light'; 2. 'photography'),
e.g.
photographia 'photography';
new formations:
photoanalyse 'analysis of or by means of
light';
photosculptura 'photosculpture'
proto- ('first, primitive, prototypal'),
e.g.
prototypo 'prototype';
new formations:
protoanimal,
protoreligion 'prototype of religion'
pseudo- ('pseudo-'),
e.g.
pseudoclassic;
new formations:
pseudohuman 'pseudohuman(e),'
pseudotolerantia 'pseudotolerance'
quasi- ('quasi-'),
e.g.
quasi-delicto 'quasi delict';
new formations:
quasi-ver 'quasi true,'
quasi-confidentia 'quasi trust'
radio- (1. 'ray'; 2. 'radio'),
e.g.
radiographia 'x-ray photography';
radiodiffunder 'to broadcast';
new formations:
radiotheoria 'ray theory';
radiopropaganda 'radio publicity'
tele- ('far off'),
e.g.
telescopio 'telescope,'
television;
new formations:
telediffunder 'to broadcast long-distance,'
teleanalyse 'analysis at a distance'
b) Second elements or suffixes. Note: The initial vowels indicated in the form below are the norm. In combinations with first elements which have an established compounding pattern, the normal vowel may disappear or be replaced by another. E.g. tele- (which enters into compounds without a compounding vowel) plus -ometro would yield telemetro.
-icida ('killer'),
e.g.
matricida 'killer of his mother';
new formations:
bufonicida 'toad killer,'
draconicida 'dragon killer'
-icidio ('killing'),
e.g.
matricidio 'killing of one's mother';
new formations:
odoricidio 'killing of odors,'
hippicidio 'killing of horses'
-omane ('mad'),
e.g.
megalomane 'megalomaniac (adj.)';
new formations:
alcoholomane 'alcohol-craving,'
telephonomane 'madly addicted to the use of
the telephone.'
Note:
The derivatives
-omano 'a man thus afflicted,'
-omana 'a woman thus afflicted,' and
-omania 'the affliction itself'
may likewise be used as suffixes.
-ometro ('measuring instrument'),
e.g.
serometro 'serometer';
new formations:
crystallometro 'crystallometer,'
cardiometro 'cardiometer'
-ographo
(1. 'instrument that writes or records';
2. '-grapher'), e.g.
seismographo 'seismograph,'
biographo 'biographer';
new formations:
heliographo 'heliograph,'
fluxographo 'instrument measuring quantity or
speed of flow.'
Note:
The derivative -ographia 'system or technique
of recording' may likewise be used as a
suffix.
-ologo ('-ologue, -ologer, -ologist'), e.g.
graphologo 'graphologist';
new formations:
petroleologo 'oil expert';
scientiologo 'student of the organization of
the sciences.'
Note:
The derivative
-ologia 'science'
may likewise be used as a suffix.
-ophile ('loving, fond of'; often contrasted
with -ophobe),
e.g.
bibliophile (adj.);
new formations:
heliophile 'fond of the sun,'
palestinophile 'Palestinophile.'
Note:
The derivatives
-ophilo 'a man thus characterized,'
-ophila 'a woman thus characterized,' and
-ophilia 'the tendency itself'
may likewise be used as suffixes.
-ophobe ('fearing, disliking'; often
contrasted with -ophile),
e.g.
anglophobe;
new formation:
hispanophobe 'Hispanophobe.'
Note:
The derivatives
-ophobo 'a man thus characterized,'
-ophoba 'a woman thus characterized,' and
-ophobia 'the tendency itself'
may likewise be used as suffixes.
-oscopo ('-oscopist'),
e.g.
cranioscopo 'cranioscopist';
new formation:
röntgenoscopo 'x-ray examiner.'
Note:
The derivatives
-oscopio 'the instrument serving the
-oscopist,'
-oscopia 'the field of study,' and
-oscopic 'pertaining to the study'
may likewise be used as suffixes.
§ 162. On compound numerals, cf. § 119 above;
on numerals as compounding elements § 128.
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------------------------ III Derivation composite ------------------------ §163 COMPOSITION per prefixos como etiam per le combination de parolas complete es sovente complite IN CONJUNCTION CON DERIVATION per affixos. (Cf. §155 supra.) Un formation como infiltrar non es, parlante strictemente, un composito de 'in' plus 'filtrar', sed un derivato composite de 'in' plus 'filtro' per medio del suffixo verbal -ar. Similarmente heliocentric non es un derivato de 'heliocentro' (que non existe), sed de helio- plus 'centro' per le suffixo adjectival -ic. Additional exemplos fortuite es: |
§ 163. III. -- COMPOUNDING by prefixes as well as by the combination of full-fledged words is often carried out IN CONJUNCTION WITH DERIVATION by affixes. (Cf. § 155 above.) A formation like infiltrar 'to infiltrate' is not, strictly speaking, a compound of in plus filtrar but a compound derivative from in plus filtro 'filter' by means of the verbal suffix -ar. Similarly heliocentric is not a derivative from *heliocentro (which does not exist) but from helio- plus centro by means of the adjectival suffix ic. Further random examples are: |
semi- cupa semicupio: sitz bath (banio con un sede)
uni- latere unilateral
re- fresc refrescar: to refresh
ad- commode accommodar: to accommodate
| |
| §164 Un numero de substantivos e verbos rende adjectivos per un processo de derivation compositori in le qual le suffixo es le desinentia adjectival simple (-e o nihil). Exemplos es: | § 164. A number of nouns and verbs yield adjectives by a process of compounding derivation in which the suffix is the simple adjectival ending (-e or nothing). Examples are: |
~ subst. adjectivo
------ ------------
late collo laticolle habente collo grosse
albe flor albiflor habente flores blanc
cruce forma cruciforme habente forma de cruce
multe latere multilatere habente multe lateres
mixte linea mixtilinee habente lineas mixte
crasse lingua crassilingue habente lingua crasse
omne modo omnimode multiplice
sol pede solipede habente un sol pede
tres remo trireme habente tres remos
hamo rostro hamirostre habente rostro como hamo
unda sono undisone con sono undeante
poly- syllabo polysyllabe con multe syllabas
vino coler vinicole cultivante vino
melle fluer melliflue fluente como melle
saxo franger saxifrage frangente petras; que frange petras
verme fugir vermifuge que face vermes fugir
ventre loquer ventriloque parlante per le ventre
vive parer vivipare que parturi [produce] prole vive
igne vomir ignivome vomiente igne
carne vorar carnivore que mangia carne
etc.
| |
|
Cata uno de iste formationes pote servir como le modello pro
formationes additional que involve le mesme secunde elemento.
Iste secunde elemento pote esser reguardate e usate como un
suffixo.
Le vocal compositori es considerate parte del suffixo como illustrate in le exemplos sequente: |
Any one of these formations can serve as the model for further
formations involving the same second element. This second element may
be regarded and used as a suffix.
The compounding vowel is to be considered part of it as illustrated in the following examples: |
-iforme gambiforme formate como un gamba
milliforme de un mille formas
-ilingue acutilingue habente un lingua acute;
de humor mordace
lentilingue parlante lentemente
-ipede cervipede habente pedes como un cervo
unipede habente un sol pede
-isone americanisone sonante como un americano
tonitrisone sonante como tonitro
-icole pinicole cultivante pinos
capillicole cultivante capillos
-iloque multiloque parlante multo
folliloque parlante como un folle
-ipare bufonipare parturiente bufones
ignipare producente igne
-ivome injuriivome sputante insultos
aurivome sputante auro
etc.
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Nota: Suffixos de iste sorta es formas compositori de substantivos e verbos correspondente. In tanto que tal substantivos e verbos ha lor proprie derivatos, istes pote equalmente esser usate in nove formationes parallel al typo illustrate supra. P.ex., proque -icole veni del verbo 'coler' e proque 'coler' ha derivatos como 'cultor', 'cultura', etc., il es possibile formar parallel a omne formationes in -icole alteres in -icultor, -icultura, etc.
In consequentia formationes libere como |
Note: Suffixes of this kind are compounding forms of corresponding nouns and verbs. In so far as such nouns and verbs have derivatives of their own, these may likewise be used in new formations parallel to the type illustrated above. E.g., as -icole comes from the verb coler and as coler has derivatives like cultor, cultura, etc., it is possible to form parallel to all formations in -icole others in -icultor, -icultura, etc. Hence free formations like |
acutilingual,
tonitrisonante,
pinicultura,
multiloquentia,
igniparente,
etc. |
|
§165 LE PREPOSITIONES E CONJUNCTIONES include un numero de
compositos que non pote servir como modellos pro formationes
additional. Parlante strictemente il ha nulle construction de
parolas con respecto a ulle de iste duo partes del discurso.
Formas como depost, proque, malgrado, etc. es unic e non
suggere ulle altere formationes parallel.
Il pote esser notate totevia que un numero de prepositiones corresponde a conjunctiones parallel in que. Exemplos es: |
§ 165. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS include a number of compounds which
cannot serve as models for additional formations. Strictly speaking there
is no word building in regard to either of these parts of speech. Forms
like depost, proque, malgrado, etc. are unique and suggest no further
parallel formations.
It may be noted however that a number of prepositions correspond to parallel conjunctions in que. Examples are: |
Preposition Conjunction
------------------------- ---------------------------------------
ante 'before (prep)': ante que 'before (conj)'
depost 'afterwards' : depost que 'since'
durante 'during' : durante que 'whilst'
malgrado 'despite' : malgrado que 'although'
per 'through' : perque 'because'
post 'after' : post que 'since, because'
pro 'for' : proque 'because'
salvo 'save' : salvo que 'save, but that'
secundo 'along' : secundo que 'according as'
ultra 'beyond' : ultra que 'aside from the fact that'
viste 'in view of' : viste que 'considering that'
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|
Quando parolas como considerante, excepte, etc. es usate con
functiones prepositional, le addition del conjunction que los
convertera in locutiones conjunctive.
Considerante su etate, ille es multo vivace.
Considerante que ille es multo vetule, ille es bastante vivace. |
When words like considerante, excepte, etc. are used with
prepositional functions, the addition of the conjunction que will
make them into conjunctional locutions.
Considerante su etate, ille es multo vivace
Considerante que ille es multo vetule, ille es bastante vivace |
| §166 Locutiones prepositional e conjunctive es multo numerose e nove locutiones pote esser formate tanto liberemente como in anglese. | § 166. Prepositional and conjunctional locutions arc very numerous and new ones can be formed as freely as in English. | con le exception de 'except, with the exception of'
per medio de 'through, by means of'
pro le beneficio de 'for the benefit of, in behalf of'
in respecto a 'in regard to, with reference to'
supponite que 'supposing that'
|
| §167 Nota: Como dictate per requirimentos practic, il es possibile usar duo prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese {in between} que differe del prepositiones composite anglese como {into} e {upon} mermente per le orthographia separate del duo elementos. | § 167. Note: As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements. | Io va a in le foresta: Io entra al foresta. 'I go into (to in) the forest'
Io va in le foresta: Io ambula in le foresta. ('I walk in the forest' or 'walk into the forest')
Illo cadeva a inter le libros. 'It fell down (to a place) in between the books'
Illa te accompaniara usque a trans le montanias. 'She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the
mountains'
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=========== Appendice 1 =========== --------------------- Verbos de duple thema --------------------- Il pote esser importante notar que le termino "secunde thema irregular de verbos" como usate in iste grammatica non debe esser permittite evocar le spectro de irregularitates verbal characteristic del majoritate de linguas ethnic. In Interlingua le secunde thema irregular de verbos ha nihil a facer con le question de conjugation. Illo es un thema que occurre in certe substantivos e adjectivos derivate e los impedi de assumer formas innaturalmente distorte, como per exemplo scribitura in loco de scriptura (de scriber), corrumpitive in loco de corruptive (de corrumper), incidition in loco de incision (de incider), etc. De plus le typo "regular", scribitura, corrumpitive, incidition, etc., non necessarimente debe esser considerate "erronee" sed pote esser usate quandocunque il pare stilisticamente possibile o preferibile. In construction active de vocabulos, il essera discoperite que le secunde thema irregular causa pauc difficultates e sovente simplifica le processo de derivation. Derivar, per exemplo, le forma "regular" collidition de collider non es facile pro alicuno qui parla como su lingua native anglese o qualcunque altere lingua del civilisation occidental, durante que le uso del thema "irregular" collis- con un resultante collision pare natural e assi multo facile. Finalmente, on non debe ignorar le facto que construction active de vocabulos es in practica rarmente un question de derivar un parola de un altere in un vacuo, pro si dicer, sed plus tosto un question de adaptar un nove formation in un patrono de plures que jam es familiar. Pro illustrar: Quicunque require un adjectivo a accompaniar, que nos dice, le verbo extraher [-trah-/-tract-], va spontaneemente cunear extractive, non como le resultato laboriose de attachar -ive al verbo sed plus tosto proque extractive se conforma al patrono de vocabulos jam cognoscite, como extraher, extractor, extraction, extrahente. Le nove formation extractive non es - parlante psychologicamente e pedagogicamente - derivate de un 'extraher' isolate. Illo es formate de 'extraher' in le presentia de extraction, extractor, etc. Omne verbo cuje secunde thema non resulta del prime per le simple addition de -at o -it es accompaniate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary per un plen indication de su duo themas. Un exposition descriptive del secunde thema irregular de verbos pote totevia esser trovate utile pro certe propositos e es essayate in le paragraphos sequente. Nota que infinitivos que non appare in le Interlingua-English Dictionary es listate infra in parentheses. Nulle verbo derivate pote unquam haber un secunde thema irregular. Verbos como fusionar (de fusion), degradar (de grado), normalisar (de normal), falsificar (de false), blanchir (de blanc), etc. es sempre regular. Verbos composite, sia formate con prefixos (componer, imprimer, interrogar, etc.), sia essente le formas composite de vocabulos integre (calefacer, benedicer, etc.), seque le patrono del correspondente verbos simple in respecto a regularitate o irregularitate de lor secunde themas. Nota que le vocal de thema de verbos composite con prefixos differe occasionalmente del correspondente vocal del verbo simple, un phenomeno que non es a conservar in composition active. Tal verbos composite sovente recupera o se approcha al vocal original - le vocal del verbo simple - in lor secunde themas irregular. |
=========== Appendice 1 =========== ----------------- Double-Stem Verbs ----------------- It may be important to note that the term "irregular second stem of verbs" as used in this grammar must not be allowed to conjure up the specter of verbal irregularities characteristic of most ethnic languages. In Interlingua the irregular second stem of verbs has nothing to do with matters of conjugation. It is a stem which occurs in certain derived nouns and adjectives and prevents these from assuming unnaturally distorted forms, as for instance scribitura instead of scriptura (from scriber), corrumpitive instead of corruptive (from corrumper), incidition instead of incision (from incider), etc. Furthermore the "regular" type, scribitura, corrumpitive, incidition, etc., need not be considered "wrong" but may be used whenever it seems stylistically possible or preferable. In active word building it will be found that the irregular second stem occasions few difficulties but often simplifies the process of derivation. To derive, for instance, the "regular" form collidition from collider is not easy for anyone speaking as his native language English or any of the other languages of Western Civilization, while the use of the "irregular" stem collis- with a resulting collision seems natural and hence easy.
Finally one must not overlook the fact that active word building is in
practice rarely a matter of deriving one word from another in a vacuum, so
to speak, but rather a matter of fitting a new formation into a pattern of
several familiar ones. To illustrate: Anyone needing an adjective to go
with let us say extraher 'to extract,' will spontaneously coin extractive,
not as the laborious result of attaching -ire to the verb but rather because
extractive fits into the pattern of words already known, like extraher,
extractor, extraction, extrahente. The new formation extractive is not –
psychologically and pedagogically speaking – derived from an isolated
extraher. It is fashioned from extraher in the presence of extraction,
extractor, etc.
Every verb whose second stem does not result from the first by the simple addition of -at- or -it- is accompanied in the Interlinqua - English Dictionary by a full statement of its two stems. A descriptive survey of the irregular second stem of verbs may still be found useful for certain purposes and is attempted in the following paragraphs. Note that infinitives which do not appear in the Interlinqua - English Dictionary are listed below within parentheses. No derived verb can ever have an irregular second stem. Verbs like fusionar (from fusion), degrader (from grado), normalisar (from normal), falsificar (from false), blanchir (from blanc), etc. are always regular. Compound verbs - whether formed with prefixes (componer, imprimer, interrogar, etc.) or the compounding forms of full-fledged words (calefacer, benedicer, etc.) follow the pattern of the corresponding simple verbs in regard to regularity or irregularity of their second stems. Note that the stem vowel of verbs compounded with prefixes differs occasionally from the corresponding vowel of the simple verb, a phenomenon not to be preserved in active compounding. Such compounded verbs often recover or approach the original vowel - the vowel of the simple verb - in their irregular second stem. |
a->i a->i a->a
------- ------ --------
ager ag- act-
rediger redig- redact-
------- ------ --------
a->i a->i a->e
------- ------ --------
facer fac- fact-
conficer confic- confect-
------- ------ --------
e->i e->i e->e
------- ------ --------
leger leg- lect-
colliger collig- collect-
| |
| Verbos cuje infinitivos termina in -ar ha un secunde thema irregular in solo tres casos exceptional: | Verbs whose infinitive ends in -ar have an irregular second stem in only three exceptional instances. |
fricar fric- frict
juvar juv- jut-
secar sec- sect- | |
| Verbos cuje infinitivos termina in -ir ha un secunde thema irregular in le casos exceptional sequente: | Verbs whose infinitives end in -ir have an irregular second stem in the following exceptional instances: |
(aborir) abor- abort-
aperir aper- apert-
coperir coper- copert-
experir exper- expert-
haurir haur- haust-
metir met- mens-
morir mor- mort-
patir pat- pass-
salir sal- salt-
sancir sanc- sanct-
sarcir sarc- sart-
sentir sent- sens-
venir ven- vent-
| |
|
Omne altere verbos con secunde themas irregular ha infinitivos
que termina in -er. Iste constatation non pote esser revertite.
Non omne verbos que termina in -er ha secunde themas
irregular. Sed cf. §148.
Verbos con infinitivos in -er que ha un secunde thema irregular pote esser gruppate como seque: 1. Quando le prime thema termina in -c, -l, -n, -p, -r, -u, -x, le secunde thema normalmente es formate per le addition de -t. Exemplos: |
All other verbs with irregular second stems have infinitives ending
in -er. This statement cannot be reversed. Not all verbs ending in -er
have irregular second stems. But cf. § 148.
Verbs with infinitives in -er which have an irregular second stem can
be grouped as follows:
1. When the first stem ends in c, l, n, p, r, u, x, the second stem is normally formed by the addition of t. Examples: |
docer doc- doct-
ducer duc- duct-
(consuler) consul- consult-
tener ten- tent-
caper cap- capt-
raper rap- rapt-
parer par- part-
offerer offer- offert-
(serer) ser- sert-
-luer -lu- -lut-
tribuer tribu- tribut-
(tuer) tu- tut-
texer tex- text-
| |
| 2. Quando le prime thema termina in -sc, iste desinentia es reducite ante le -t que es addite pro formar le secunde thema in le exemplos sequente: | 2. When the first stem ends in sc, this ending is reduced before the t added to form the second stem in the following examples: |
crescer cresc- cret-
miscer misc- mixt-
(noscer) nosc- not-
cognoscer cognosc- cognit-
pascer pasc- past-
quiescer quiesc- quiet-
| |
| 3. Per le addition de -t pro formar le secunde thema, le sono (e orthographia) concludente del prime thema es normalmente afficite como seque: -b deveni -p; -g e -h deveni -c; -m deveni -mp; -qu deveni -cu; -v deveni -u. Exemplos: | 3. Through the addition of t to form the second stem, the concluding sound (and spelling) of the first stem is normally affected as follows: b becomes p; g and h become c; m becomes mp; qu becomes cu; v becomes u. Examples: |
scriber scrib- script-
sorber sorb- sorpt-
ager ag- act-
reger reg- rect-
traher trah- tract-
veher veh- vect-
emer em- empt-
sumer sum- sumpt-
(loquer) loqu- locut-
sequer sequ- secut-
solver solv- solut-
volver volv- volut-
| |
| 4. In le casos sequente, le -r final del prime thema deveni un -s ante le -t que es addite pro formar le secunde thema: | 4. In the following instances the final r of the first stem becomes an s before the t added to form the second stem: |
gerer ger- gest-
haurir haur- haust-
querer quer- quest-
torrer torr- tost-
urer ur- ust-
| |
| 5. Quando le prime thema termina in -d o -t (etiam -tt), le secunde thema es normalmente formate per cambiar iste consonantes a -s o -ss. Similarmente -ct es cambiate a -x. Exemplos: | 5. When the first stem ends in d or t (also tt), the second stem is normally formed by changing these consonants to s or ss. Examples: |
(ceder) ced- cess-
seder sed- sess-
cader cad- cas-
vider vid- vis-
-luder -lud- -lus-
scander scand- scans-
prender prend- prens-
tender tend- tens-
(uter) ut- us-
verter vert- vers-
mitter mitt- miss-
flecter flect- flex-
(necter) nect- nex-
| |
| 6. In le casos sequente, le secunde thema es formate per le addition de -s al prime thema. | 6. In the following instances the second stem is formed by the addition of s to the first stem. |
(celler) cell- cels-
censer cens- cens-
currer curr- curs-
figer fig- fix-
-herer -her- -hes-
laber lab- laps-
merger merg- mers-
mulger mulg- muls-
(peller) pell- puls-
sparger sparg- spars-
torquer torqu- tors-
-veller -vell- - vuls-
| |
| 7. Le verbos sequente que pertine a uno o altere del categorias precedente es in plus characterisate per le suppression de -m e -n in le secunde thema: | 7. The following verbs which belong in one or another of the preceding categories are further characterized by the suppression of m and n in the second stem: |
contemner contemn- contempt-
finger fing- fict-
finder find- fiss-
franger frang- fract-
funder fund- fus-
(panger) pang- pact-
pinger ping- pict-
rumper rump- rupt-
scinder scind- sciss-
stringer string- strict-
tanger tang- tact-
tunder tund- tus-
vincer vinc- vict-
(siner) sin- sit-
| |
| 8. Varie irregularitates non coperite in le categorias precedente appare in le verbos sequente: | 8. Various irregularities not covered in the preceding categories appear in the following verbs: |
compler comple- complet-
deler dele- delet-
mover mov- mot-
vover vov- vot-
cerner cern- -cret-
coler col- cult-
(sterner) stern- strat-
distinguer distingu- distinct-
extinguer extingu- extinct-
(instinguer) instingu- instinct-
struer stru- struct-
-ferer -fer- -lat-
offerer offer- offert-, oblat-
fluer flu- fluct-, flux-
fruer fru- fruct-, fruit-
indulger indulg- indult-
(linquer) linqu- lict-
poner pon- posit-, post-
premer prem- press-
prender prend- prens-, pris-
surger surg- surrect-
tender tend- tens-, tent-
(terer) ter- trit-
torquer torqu- tort-, tors-
(tuer) tu- tut-, tuit-
verter vert- vers-, -ors-
vider vid- vis-, vist-
volver volv- volut-, volt-
| |
